Emma Kathryn Grigg

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Scholarly Contributions

Books

• Hart, L. A., Hart, B., Grigg, E. K., Lyons, L. A., & Turner, D. C. (2023). Exploring cats:  Their behaviors and human-cat interactions.. Lausanne, Switzerland: Frontiers Media SA. doi:10.3389/978-2-8325-4173-9

Chapters

• Grigg, E. K. (2023). Preventing behavior problems in domestic cats.  . In Clinical Manual of Feline Behavioral Medicine(pp 22-45). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing, Inc.
• Grigg, E. K., Hetts, S., & Shanan, A. (2023). Recognizing distress.  . In Hospice and Palliative Care for Companion Animals: Principles and Practice (2nd ed.)(pp 44-61). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing Inc.
• Grigg, E. (2022). Preventing Behavior Problems in Domestic Cats. In Clinical Manual of Feline Behavioral Medicine. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781119653271.ch3
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  In many cases, behavior problems in domestic cats can be avoided through conscientious environmental management and enrichment tailored for the needs of this species. This chapter provides an overview of recommendations for new and existing cat owners for avoiding the development of behavior problems. One important tool for preventing the development or exacerbation of behavior problems in cats is an understanding of feline body language, particularly signs of stress in cats. Scratching surfaces and sharpening their claws is a natural behavior for cats, and thus declawing prevents cats from engaging in certain species-typical behaviors. Perhaps the most important piece of advice for current and perspective cat owners is to ensure that the cat's environmental needs are met. The primary reason for neutering cats is to prevent unwanted litters, and the majority of pet cats in the US are neutered.
• Grigg, E. (2019). Helping Clients Facing Behavior Problems in Their Companion Animals. In Clinician's Guide to Treating Companion Animal Issues. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-812962-3.00016-2
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  This chapter begins with an overview of the frequency of behavior problems in companion animals, types of problems commonly seen, and potential outcomes of these problems (ranging from resolution to management to relinquishment). Potential impacts (emotional, logistical, financial) on the human members of the household are noted. Current behavioral modification approaches used in companion animal behavioral therapy (based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning and counterconditioning) are summarized. The chapter outlines “Best Practices” for helping clients address these problems, considering safety of all household members and the clients' ability to successfully comply with treatment recommendations. Best Practices range from referral to a qualified behavior specialist or trainer (and how to identify a qualified specialist) and to management and training techniques owners can put into place to improve the living situation for all involved. Sample scenarios and discussion questions are included, and the difficult issue of discussing euthanasia for behavior problems is addressed.
• Grigg, E. K., & Donaldson, T. M. (2019). Helping clients cope with grief associated with euthanasia for behavior problems.. In Pet Loss, Grief, and Therapeutic Interventions: Practitioners Navigating the Human-Animal Bond. Routledge.

Journals/Publications

• Clarkson, S. T., Kogan, L. R., & Grigg, E. K. (2024). Exploring the impact of dogs on the human-cat relationship in private homes. . Human-Animal Interactions. doi:doi.org/10.1079/hai.2024.0007
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  Despite the growing numbers of dogs and cats cohabiting in US households, little research has focused on the influence of dogs on the human-animal bond of their feline roommates. The present study investigated whether cohabiting with a dog has an impact on the human-cat bond and the ways in which cats interact with humans. Based on existing knowledge of the differences between human-dog and human-cat interactions, we predicted that cats who have lived with a dog for at least 1 year will exhibit differences in the bond and interaction frequency with their owners. A 46-item survey was administered to 682 US cat owners via social media (SM) and Mechanical Turk (MTurk), Amazon’s crowdsourcing service, to collect data on demographics, interaction frequency, behavioral issues, and pet-owner bond. Although owners in cat-only households tended to report slightly higher bond scores with their cats ( μ SM = 30.34; μ Mturk = 28.32) than owners in mixed households ( μ SM = 29.33; μ Mturk = 27.42), the differences were small, and the association between household type and bond score was not significant (p SM = 0.973, p MTurk = 0.124). Owners who engaged in more frequent active interactions with their cats had higher bond scores. These results indicate that spending more time engaging in active interactions with one’s cat is associated with a stronger bond, and the frequency of these interactions may be more important than the presence of a cohabiting dog.
• Grigg, E. K., Turner, D. C., Lyons, L. A., Hart, B. L., & Hart, L. A. (2023). Editorial: Exploring cats: their behaviors and human-cat interactions. Frontiers in veterinary science, 10, 1329398.
• Grigg, E., & Kogan, L. (2022). Associations between Laser Light Pointer Play and Repetitive Behaviors in Companion Cats: Does Participant Recruitment Method Matter?. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 27(2). doi:10.1080/10888705.2022.2065880
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  One common form of play between companion cat guardians and cats involves the use of laser light pointers (LLPs). Although viewed by many as an enjoyable shared interaction, experts have suggested that it may increase the risk of compulsive behaviors. Our earlier study recruited participants through social media to examine the relationship between LLPs and potential abnormal repetitive behaviors (pARBs). Because of possible biases in this form of recruitment, this study was conducted utilizing Amazon Mechanical Turk. A total of 468 responses (54.5% female, 44.0% male, 1.5% nonbinary) were analyzed. Significant associations between the frequency of LLPs and the occurrence of spins or tail chases, chasing lights or shadows, staring “obsessively” at lights or reflections, and fixating on a specific toy were found. Additional associations for these pARBs included declaw status, cat age, and number of cats in the household. Despite differences in recruitment method, the primary conclusions of the two studies were the same: guardians frequently using LLPs with their cats reported significantly more pARBs. These results suggest that LLPs may be associated with compulsive behaviors in cats.
• Grigg, E., Liu, S., Dempsey, D., Wong, K., Bain, M., Sollers, J., Haddock, R., Kogan, L., Barnhard, J., Tringali, A., Thigpen, A., & Hart, L. (2022). Assessing the Relationship Between Emotional States of Dogs and Their Human Handlers, Using Simultaneous Behavioral and Cardiac Measures. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9. doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.897287
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  Negative stress due to human handling has been reported for a number of domestic animals, including dogs. Many companion dogs display significant stress during routine care in the veterinary clinic, risking injury to staff and potentially compromising the quality of care that these dogs receive. On the other hand, positive interactions with humans can have a beneficial effect on dogs, particularly in stressful situations such as animal shelters. Research has shown that dogs can detect human emotions through visual, auditory, and chemical channels, and that dogs will exhibit emotional contagion, particularly with familiar humans. This study investigated relationships between emotional states of dogs and unfamiliar human handlers, using simultaneous measures of cardiac activity and behavior, during two sessions of three consecutive routine handling sets. Measures of cardiac activity included mean heart rate (HRmean), and two measures of heart rate variability (HRV): the root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats (RMSSD); and the high frequency absolute power component of HRV, log transformed (HFlog). We also assessed human handlers' emotional state during handling sessions following an intervention designed to reduce stress, compared with sessions conducted on a different day and following a control activity. Polar H10 cardiac sensors were used to simultaneously record cardiac activity for both canine and human participants, and behavioral data were collected via digital video. The strongest influence on the dogs' stress levels in our study was found to be increasing familiarity with the setting and the handler; HRmean and SI decreased, and HRV (as RMSSD) increased, significantly from the first to the third handling set. Canine HRV (as HFlog) was also highest in set 3, although the difference was not statistically significant. There were no strong patterns found in the human cardiac data across handling set, session, or by pre-handling activity. We did not find consistent support for emotional contagion between the dogs and their handlers in this study, perhaps due to the brief time that the dogs spent with the handlers. Recommendations for application to dog handling, and limitations of our methods, are described.
• Grigg, E., Chou, J., Parker, E., Gatesy-Davis, A., Clarkson, S., & Hart, L. (2021). Stress-Related Behaviors in Companion Dogs Exposed to Common Household Noises, and Owners' Interpretations of Their Dogs' Behaviors. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8. doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.760845
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  Sudden, loud noises are one of the most common triggers for fearful behaviors in dogs, and many companion dogs suffer from noise sensitivity. Existing research focuses on dramatic infrequent sounds (e.g., thunderstorms, fireworks). Anecdotally, and based on reports of undesirable behaviors in response to noises in the home, many common household noises may also be causing fear and anxiety in companion dogs. However, these responses have not yet been studied in home environments. We surveyed 386 dog owners about their dogs' responses to household sounds, and recorded dog behaviors and human reactions from 62 videos and compilations available on an online video sharing platform, featuring dogs reacting to common household noises. Numerous signs of canine fear and anxiety were reported by survey respondents and observed in the videos, in response to both daily, and irregular but “normal,” household noises. Responses were significantly stronger to sounds characterized as high frequency intermittent than to sounds characterized as low frequency continuous. Respondents appeared to underestimate their dogs' fearfulness, and the majority of humans in the videos responded to their dogs' behaviors with amusement; welfare concerns were rarely expressed. While these videos cannot be used to calculate actual prevalence of these issues, our data support that some owners are underestimating fearfulness in their dogs in response to household noises, and responding inappropriately to dogs' expressions of fear and anxiety. Better education is required for dog owners to accurately interpret canine body language, to both safeguard dogs' welfare and minimize development of anxiety-related behavior problems.
• Grigg, E., Ueda, Y., Walker, A., Hart, L., Simas, S., & Stern, J. (2021). Comparative Assessment of Heart Rate Variability Obtained via Ambulatory ECG and Polar Heart Rate Monitors in Healthy Cats: A Pilot Study. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8. doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.741583
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  Chronic exposure to stressful environments can negatively impact cats' health and welfare, affecting behavioral, autonomic, endocrine, and immune function, as with cats in shelters. Low-stress handling practices likely improve shelter cat welfare, but data supporting improved outcomes remain limited. Cardiac activity, particularly heart rate variability (HRV), is an indicator of stress and emotional state in humans and non-human animals, tracking important body functions associated with stress responsiveness, environmental adaptability, mental, and physical health. HRV studies in cats are limited, involving mainly anesthetized or restrained cats. This pilot study tested the feasibility of obtaining HRV data from unrestrained cats, using a commercially available cardiac monitoring system (Polar H10 with chest strap), compared with data from a traditional ambulatory electrocardiogram. Simultaneous data for the two systems were obtained for five adult cats. Overall, the Polar H10 monitor assessments of HRV were lower than the true HRV assessment by ambulatory ECG, except for SDNN. Correlation between the two systems was weak. Possible reasons for the lack of agreement between the two methods are discussed. At this time, our results do not support the use of Polar H10 heart rate monitors for studies of HRV in cats.
• Kogan, L. R., & Grigg, E. K. (2021). Laser Light Pointers for Use in Companion Cat Play: Association with Guardian-Reported Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors. Animals, 11(8).
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  Use of laser light pointers for feline play is popular with many companion cat guardians. It can be an enjoyable shared interaction and provide an opportunity for feline exercise. Laser light play alone, however, does not allow cats to complete the hunting sequence and it has been suggested that this may trigger frustration and stress, common contributors to compulsive behaviors. This study examined the potential relationship between the use of laser light pointers for play and excessive or abnormal repetitive behaviors (ARBs) often linked to diagnosis of feline compulsive disorders. Using an online, anonymous, cross-sectional survey, we explored cat guardians' use of laser toys and reported ARBs in their cats. A total of 618 responses were analyzed, primarily female participants from the United States. We found significant associations between the frequency of laser light play and the occurrence of all surveyed ARBs, apart from overgrooming. Provision of outdoor access and cat age were also significant predictors of reported ARBs: indoor-only cats, and young (1-2 years) cats were more likely to display ARBs. The strongest patterns were seen for behaviors which may be connected to laser light play: chasing lights or shadows, staring "obsessively" at lights or reflections, and fixating on a specific toy. Although correlational, these results suggest that laser light toys may be associated with the development of compulsive behaviors in cats, warranting further research into their use and potential risks.
• Grigg, E., Hart, L., & Moffett, J. (2020). Comparison of the effects of clay modeling & cat cadaver dissection on high school students' outcomes & attitudes in a human anatomy course. American Biology Teacher, 82(9). doi:10.1525/abt.2020.82.9.596
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  Increasing public concern over the use of animal dissection in education is driving development and testing of alternatives to animal use. Clay modeling has proven successful in achieving comparable or superior learning at postsecondary levels, but it has not yet been tested at secondary levels. This study tested the effectiveness and appeal of clay models vs. cat cadaver dissection in teaching human anatomy to high school students. Student performance on a content knowledge assessment increased following both the model and dissection laboratories. The use of clay models produced better short-term learning outcomes in human anatomy for high school students than the use of cat dissection techniques, although this improvement was not retained in students' final examination scores. Students found the clay models both useful and enjoyable. Overall, the majority of students chose dissection as the preferred technique; however, after the laboratory exercises, the proportion of students who chose dissection decreased, for both the clay modeling and cat dissection laboratory sections. In the clay modeling group, the proportion of students expressing preference for clay modeling was slightly higher than the proportion preferring cat dissection.
• Kogan, L., Schoenfeld-Tacher, R., Hellyer, P., Grigg, E., & Kramer, E. (2020). Veterinarians and impostor syndrome: An exploratory study. Veterinary Record, 187(7). doi:10.1136/vr.105914
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  Background Impostor syndrome (IS) is the tendency to doubt one's abilities despite positive evidence to the contrary. Individuals with IS are afraid of being discovered as intellectual frauds and attribute their successes to external qualities. Methods An international study explored the prevalence and severity of IS in practicing veterinarians. An anonymous survey consisting of the 20-question Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale, plus additional demographic and work-related questions, was distributed online. Results A total of 941 practicing veterinarians responded. Overall, 631 participants (68 per cent) met or exceeded the clinical cut-off score for IS. Ordinal regressions found that residing in New Zealand (NZ) or the UK, being female or having been in practice for less than five years increased the odds of having a high IS score. The effect of these factors on the perceived degree of impact of IS on participants' professional and personal life was also explored. Women, UK residents and new practitioners reported higher levels of impact in their professional life. However, sex and country of residence did not affect the degree of impact on participants' personal life. Conclusion Veterinarians in general have an alarmingly high prevalence of IS with young, female graduates practising in the UK and NZ at increased risk.
• van Haaften, K., Grigg, E., Kolus, C., Hart, L., & Kogan, L. (2020). A survey of dog owners’ perceptions on the use of psychoactive medications and alternatives for the treatment of canine behavior problems. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 35. doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2019.10.002
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  To evaluate dog owners' opinions regarding the use of psychoactive medications and alternatives in dogs, 513 past or present dog owners completed an online, anonymous survey. Owners reported their comfort levels, concerns, and relevant decision factors regarding the use of psychoactive medications (divided into categories of fast-acting/situational and slow-acting/daily medications), herbal or nutritional supplements, pheromonal products, and cannabinoid products for their dogs. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and nonparametric correlation analysis. Dog owners were more comfortable overall with the use of fast-acting versus slow-acting medications (62.3% [N = 320] and 42.7% [N = 219] were comfortable, respectively). The most concerning undesirable effects for owners were sedation, potential for addiction, and changing their dog's personality in a negative way. Most dog owners (90.3%, N = 463) considered proven effectiveness to be an important consideration factor when considering psychoactive medication or alternative use for their dogs, followed by ease of administration (79.9%, N = 410), veterinarian recommendation (77.4%, N = 397), and cost (76.6%, N = 393). Owners who had a personal history of taking psychoactive medications for anxiety or depression expressed higher comfort levels giving their dogs fast-acting medications, slow-acting medications, pheromonal products, and cannabinoids than owners who had not taken these products. The information gathered in this study will help veterinarians understand their clients' attitudes toward psychoactive medications and alternatives and be prepared to address owners' questions and concerns.
• Grigg, E. K., & Hart, L. A. (2019). Enhancing Success of Veterinary Visits for Clients With Disabilities and an Assistance Dog or Companion Animal: A Review. Frontiers in veterinary science, 6, 44.
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  Despite increasing information on enhancing client communication and compliance/adherence in veterinary medicine, literature focusing on special cases remains limited: working with clients with special needs, challenges or disabilities, or when the patient is an assistance or emotional support animal. This paper summarizes current recommendations on how best to build successful working relationships with these clients, including action items to implement in practice. In addition, this paper reviews current literature on important considerations for care of assistance dogs as patients.
• Grigg, E., & Kogan, L. (2019). Owners’ attitudes, knowledge, and care practices: Exploring the implications for domestic cat behavior and welfare in the home. Animals, 9(11). doi:10.3390/ani9110978
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  Available research on the link between domestic cats’ environment and welfare has primarily been conducted on cats living in animal shelters or research facilities; a better understanding of the welfare of cats living in homes is needed. We used an anonymous online survey to investigate the attitudes of current U.S.-based cat owners towards cats as pets; owner knowledge about normal cat behavior and environmental needs; current trends in cat care; behavior problems reported for these cats; and the human-animal bond. We found that owners with a more accurate understanding of cat behavior, and stronger reported bond with their cats, reported fewer behavior problems. Conversely, owners’ agreement with certain misconceptions about cats, and high perceived costs of care, were correlated with the use of punishment (e.g., yelling, hitting, or spraying with water) in response to misbehavior. Our results suggest that many cats living in private homes may be receiving only minimal environmental enrichment, particularly in the case of interactive (e.g., playing with a friendly human, or exploring changing environments) vs. static (e.g., cat toys such as stuffed mice) enrichment. Collectively, these results support the premise that better education of cat owners could benefit the welfare of cats living in private homes. Abstract: Available research on the link between domestic cats’ environment and welfare has primarily been conducted in animal shelters or research facilities; a better understanding of the welfare of cats living in homes is needed. This study measured the attitudes of current U.S.-based cat owners towards cats as pets; owner knowledge about normal cat behavior and environmental needs; current trends in cat care; cats’ behavior in the home; and the human-animal bond. The primary hypothesis was that owners with a more accurate understanding of cat behavior and a stronger reported bond with their cats would report fewer behavior problems. Data from an online, anonymous, cross-sectional survey of 547 cat owners supported the primary hypothesis: owner knowledge, along with two measures of the human-animal bond (owner-pet interactions, and perceptions of affordability of cat ownership), were significant predictors of the number of reported behavior problems. In addition to fewer reported behavior problems, greater owner knowledge about cats was correlated with less use of positive-punishment-based responses to misbehavior, and increased tolerance of potential behavior problems when present. Owners’ agreement with certain misconceptions about cats and perception of high costs of care were correlated with the use of positive punishment in response to misbehavior. Based on the survey results, many cats living in private homes may be receiving only minimal environmental enrichment. Collectively, these results suggest the need for better education of cat owners. Topics could include: understanding normal cat behavior and correcting misconceptions; enrichment needs (particularly of indoor-only cats) and the risk of behavior problems when cats’ needs are not met; welfare risks associated with declawing; and the importance of sufficient resources to minimize social and territorial conflict.
• Grigg, E., Kogan, L., van Haaften, K., & Kolus, C. (2019). Cat owners’ perceptions of psychoactive medications, supplements and pheromones for the treatment of feline behavior problems. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 21(10). doi:10.1177/1098612X18807783
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  Objectives: This study assessed cat owners’ perceptions of the use of psychoactive medications and alternative products for the treatment of behavioral problems in their cats. Factors that potentially impact these perceptions were explored and discussed. Methods: An online, anonymous, cross-sectional survey was conducted to assess US-based cat owners’ experiences with behavior problems of their cats, familiarity with psychoactive medications for treatment of behavior problems and comfort levels using the following products for treatment of feline behavior problems: fast-acting or situational prescription medications, slow-acting or long-term prescription medications, herbal/nutritional supplements, pheromone products and cannabinoid products. Results: Many respondents reported that their cats had behavioral problems, but few had ever sought behavioral help for their cats. Only half were aware of the availability of psychoactive medications for cat behavior problems. Respondents who had personally used a prescription psychoactive medication in the past were more comfortable with giving fast- and slow-acting prescription medications, pheromone products and cannabinoids to their cats than respondents who had never used a prescription psychoactive medication. No difference in comfort level was seen for herbal/nutritional supplements. Overall, owners tended to be more comfortable with the situational vs long-term medications. Conclusions and relevance: Given the prevalence of feline behavior problems reported in this study, the lack of awareness of either the availability or potential benefits of psychoactive medications for the treatment of feline behavior problems, and the fact that very few owners had ever sought help for behavior problems with their cats, are concerning. These results suggest a missed opportunity for veterinarians to help clients identify, understand and treat feline behavior problems. Many owners appear open to these treatment options for their cats; it is suggested that, when warranted, educating cat owners about the potential benefits and risks of these medications would be of value.
• Grigg, E., Marie Nibblett, B., Robinson, J., & Smits, J. (2017). Evaluating pair versus solitary housing in kennelled domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) using behaviour and hair cortisol: A pilot study. Veterinary Record Open, 4(1). doi:10.1136/vetreco-2016-000193
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  Numerous studies conducted to assess welfare of domestic dogs housed in kennel facilities have reported that these dogs experience suboptimal living conditions. One important goal of improving welfare of kennelled dogs is to reduce their stress levels, and one recommended approach for improving welfare of kennelled dogs is group or social housing. The beneficial effects of management changes designed to achieve this goal should be measurable in individual animals. Stress is evident through behaviours exhibited, as well as via the concentration of cortisol, a key hormone reflecting stress. Using behavioural and hair cortisol measures, we conducted a pilot study to measure the impact of switching dogs housed in a long-term kennels facility from solitary to pair housing, using both within-subjects and between-groups comparisons. Considerable individual variation in dog responses was noted, with only two of eight pair-housed dogs showing significant declines in multiple stress-related behaviours once in pair housing. The most sensitive behaviours were active vigilance and repetitive movements (such as jumping and pacing). Barking was reduced overall in the facility following the housing change, even among dogs still in solitary housing. The long-term stress as reflected in hormone deposition in hair also provided encouraging indications that the dogs experienced lower stress levels when in paired housing; dogs showed a significant decline in hair cortisol levels from the first (prehousing change) to second (postintervention) samples. Domestic dogs are social animals, and numerous indications of potential benefit were recorded with no negative impacts seen. Based on our findings, we recommend pair or group housing of compatible dogs as a promising addition to the strategies available to those seeking to improve welfare of kennelled dogs. Future studies using higher numbers of animals and that include tracking of hair cortisol, vigilance behaviour, repetitive movements and barking would be desirable.
• Grigg, E., Nibblett, B., Sacks, B., Hack, R., Serpell, J., & Hart, L. (2016). Genetic and behavioral characteristics of the St. Kitts 'island dog'. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 178. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2016.02.002
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  Recent studies of the ancient and indigenous dog breeds, while informing us about the origins of the domestic dog and the process of domestication, can also aid in understanding the behavior of modern-day dogs. Genetic signatures of indigenous American dog origins may be present on the Caribbean island of St. Kitts, where a population of largely free-roaming, mixed-breed street dogs exists in association with human residential areas. Behavior is the product of a complex interplay of genetic predispositions and individual experiences, and any distinctive behavioral tendencies present in this population of dogs may represent adaptations (in the evolutionary sense) to the human cultural context in which they evolved. We wished to assess whether the St. Kitts dog population represented a model of dogs of indigenous origin living in close association with humans, and thus be useful in understanding the relative importance of factors (genetic vs. environmental) contributing to the behavior of modern-day dogs. To address the question of whether 'island dogs' possess the genetic signature of an indigenous origin, we used both mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (mtDNA) and Y chromosome typing to partially assess the ancestry and geographic origins of these dogs. To investigate whether 'island dogs' differed in behavioral characteristics from mixed breed dogs in a larger population (North America), we compared 'island dog' scores on the Canine Behavioral and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) with scores from North American mixed breed dogs. DNA haplotypes known to be associated with indigenous American dog origins were not found in the 'island dogs' sampled, and genetic analysis indicated a likely European (post-colonial) origin for these dogs. 'Island dogs' had significantly higher scores for non-social fear (p < 0.02), defined as 'showing fearful or wary responses to sudden or loud noises, traffic, and unfamiliar objects and situations'. It may be that neophobia and noise phobias have been selected for in 'island dogs', given the realities of living on the street with minimal direct human oversight and care. Alternately, these dogs may have become sensitized to certain types of stimuli, and have learned to be more fearful of novel situations and sounds, as such occurrences may represent a more serious threat than in North American households, where owners intervene frequently to manage risk and provide medical care. Overall, these 'island dogs' are likely responding to similar selection pressures and developmental influences as the North American dogs; factors associated with living within human cultures (i.e., selection pressures associated with domestication).
• Grigg, E., & Piehler, M. (2015). Influence of dog appeasing pheromone (DAP) on dogs housed in a long-term kennelling facility. Veterinary Record Open, 2(1). doi:10.1136/vetreco-2014-000098
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  Introduction: Kennel facilities are commonly acknowledged as a stressful environment for many domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). One therapeutic measure used to reduce anxiety in dogs is dog appeasing pheromone (DAP), which has been found effective in reducing stress-related behaviours in a number of contexts. Aims and Objectives: A pilot study was conducted to assess whether DAP would reduce frequency of stress-related behaviours in a group of eight dogs housed for teaching purposes in a long-term kennelling facility. Materials and Methods: Using video analysis, proportion of time spent in stress-related behaviours for six dogs fitted with DAP collars, versus two control dogs (without collars), was compared for the time before and during DAP exposure. Results: No significant differences were found either in the proportion of time spent in stress-related behaviours in the baseline versus treatment periods or between the collared and control dogs in the change in proportion of time they spent in any of the focal behaviours in the baseline versus treatment periods. Conclusions: Possible reasons for these findings include an actual lack of effect of DAP on dogs housed in this long-term kennelling facility, an apparent lack of effect due to small sample size in this pilot study and high behavioural variation among individual dogs. Despite lack of a demonstrated effect of the DAP collars on these dogs, attention brought by this study to the behavioural issues seen in some of the dogs did have a positive impact, as it contributed to the development of an active, coordinated behavioural wellness and enrichment programme for the colony.
• Nibblett, B., Ketzis, J., & Grigg, E. (2015). Comparison of stress exhibited by cats examined in a clinic versus a home setting. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 173. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2014.10.005
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  Serum cortisol levels, physiological parameters and behavior were used to assess stress experienced by cats examined using equivalent low stress handling techniques in two different environments: their home and an idealized veterinary clinic setting. Healthy cats (n = 18) were examined in a randomized cross-over study design: 10 were examined in a clinic setting first and eight in the home first with standardization of the examination procedure including personnel and duration between examinations. All procedures were captured on video for behavioral analysis. Serum cortisol was not significantly different between the two examination environments. However, cortisol was lower on their second visit regardless of examination environment (P < 0.01). There was a significant difference for blood glucose between the clinic and home with blood glucose being higher in the clinic (P < 0.01). The behavioral analyses revealed that cats were more likely to hide in the clinic (P < 0.05). In the context of this study, where low stress handling techniques were employed throughout both environments, familiarity with the veterinary examiner and procedure were associated with decreased stress experienced by the cat. Higher blood glucose and more hiding behavior in the clinic support the hypothesis that the clinic is more stressful than the home. In the clinic setting, familiarity with the veterinary examiner and the use of low stress handling techniques potentially masked other physiological parameters associated with stress. Also, the use of low stress handling and the lack of marked extremes of fear or aggression in the cats, made the estimation of stress based on behavioral cues challenging.
• Grigg, E., Pick, L., & Nibblett, B. (2013). Litter box preference in domestic cats: Covered versus uncovered. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 15(4). doi:10.1177/1098612X12465606
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  Feline inappropriate elimination (periuria and/or perichezia) remains a very common behavioral complaint of cat owners. Treatment recommendations often include improving the attractiveness of the litter boxes available to the cat. One frequent recommendation is to avoid covered litter boxes, although this has not previously been tested experimentally. The goal of this study was to assess whether, all else being equal, cats preferentially used uncovered litter boxes over covered litter boxes. Twenty-eight cats were enrolled in the study and offered the choice of a covered or uncovered box. Waste was scooped daily from each box, and the weight of waste in the different box styles was compared and evaluated using paired t-tests and χ2 analyses. Overall, there was no significant difference between use of the two box styles. Eight individual cats did exhibit a preference (four for covered, four for uncovered), but individual preference results are not evenly distributed, with more cats than expected showing no preference between litter box types. We postulate that, if boxes are kept sufficiently clean (ie, once daily minimum cleaning), most cats will not show a preference for either box type. The observation that a minority of cats in the study exhibited a preference supports the recommendation of providing individual cats with a 'cafeteria' of litter box styles, including a covered box, to determine whether such a preference exists. These findings add to existing literature on the topic of feline inappropriate elimination and provide additional information for clinicians recommending treatment options for cats exhibiting this behavior. © ISFM and AAFP 2012.
• Grigg, E., Allen, S., Craven-Green, D., Klimley, A., Markowitz, H., & Elliott-Fisk, D. (2012). Foraging distribution of Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) in a highly impacted estuary. Journal of Mammalogy, 93(1). doi:10.1644/11-MAMM-A-128.1
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  Assessing the relative importance of environmental and anthropogenic influences on the distribution of wild populations is an important step in designing spatially explicit plans for their management and protection. We examined environmental variables correlated with the spatial distribution of eastern Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii), a marine mammal common to coastal waters, in a large, highly urbanized estuary. We assessed the relationship between prey abundance, depth, bottom relief, proximity to terrestrial haul-out sites and 3 potential sources of anthropogenic influence, and the in-water spatial distribution of seals. We identified locations of seals using satellite-linked telemetry, and used partial Mantel tests to assess which environmental variables were most strongly linked to seal foraging distribution, given spatial autocorrelation within variables. Mann - Whitney tests were used to compare environmental characteristics of locations of seals with a random distribution of locations. Because harbor seals are central-place foragers, we incorporated spatial distribution of seals relative to the central place into our analyses. High prey abundance and proximity to the haul-out site were strongly associated with the spatial distribution of seals. Harbor seals also tended to use deeper waters and areas of high bottom relief within the estuary. There was no consistent spatial relationship between the 3 anthropogenic factors and the distribution of seals, although seals tended to be found closer than expected to sites of high human activity. In highly impacted coastal areas where limited alternate suitable habitat exists, foraging seals may need to rely on disturbed (suboptimal) areas, and as a result may habituate to human presence in areas rich in food resources. © 2012 American Society of Mammalogists.
• Grigg, E., Peter Klimley, A., Allen, S., Green, D., Elliott-Fisk, D., & Markowitz, H. (2009). Spatial and seasonal relationships between Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) and their prey, at multiple scales. Fishery Bulletin, 107(3).
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  Knowing where pinnipeds forage is vital to managing and protecting their populations, and for assessing potential interactions with fisheries. We assessed the spatial relationship between the seasonal distribution of Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) outfitted with satellite transmitters and the seasonal distributions of potential harbor seal prey species in San Francisco Bay, California. Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated between the number of harbor seal locations in an area of the San Francisco Bay and the abundance of specific prey species in the same area. The inf luence of scale on the analyses was assessed by varying the scale of analysis from 1 to 10 km. There was consistency in the prey species targeted by harbor seals year-round, although there were seasonal differences between the most important prey species. The highest correlations between harbor seals and their prey were found for seasonally abundant benthic species, located within about 10 km of the primary haul-out site. Probable foraging habitat for harbor seals was identified, based on areas with high abundances of prey species that were strongly correlated with harbor seal distribution. With comparable local data inputs, this approach has potential application to pinniped management in other areas, and to decisions about the location of marine reserves designed to protect these species.
• Neale, J., Schmelzer, K., Harvey, J., Berg, E., Small, R., Grigg, E., Allen, S., & Tjeerderma, R. (2009). PCB and DDE contamination in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from North-Central California and Bristol Bay, Alaska. Aquatic Mammals, 35(1). doi:10.1578/AM.35.1.2009.1
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  In recent years, concerns have increased regarding accumulation of persistent, lipophilic contaminants by marine mammals. We quantified blood levels of the two most prevalent organochlorine (OC) contaminants of the marine ecosystem in a model species, the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) from three north-central California populations and a population in Bristol Bay, Alaska. Intensive sampling (n = 190) produced robust quantification of blood concentrations of selected PCBs and DDE, and allowed us to investigate factors affecting levels of these contaminants in seal populations with distinct environments and exposure histories. In the Alaskan samples, PCB and DDE levels were most strongly related to sex and age; OCs increased with age in males and decreased with age in females, likely due to cumulative exposure in males and load-dumping during lactation in females. Among females, an inverse relationship was observed between condition and PCB blood levels. In contrast, in the California seals, in which loads were generally much greater, pups had greater levels of PCBs and DDE than subadults and adults, suggesting stable to decreasing environmental contaminant levels. Spatial heterogeneity and seasonal differences also contributed substantially to variation among harbor seals in contaminant loads. These findings underscore the importance of accounting for demographic, geographic, seasonal, and physiological effects in toxicological studies of marine mammals.
• Neale, J., Gulland, F., Schmelzer, K., Harvey, J., Berg, E., Allen, S., Greig, D., Grigg, E., & Tjeerdema, R. (2005). Contaminant loads and hematological correlates in the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) of San Francisco Bay, California. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health - Part A, 68(8). doi:10.1080/15287390590921748
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  An expanding body of research indicates that exposure to contaminants may impact marine mammal health, thus possibly contributing to population declines. The harbor seal population of the San Francisco Bay (SFB), California, has suffered habitat loss and degradation, including decades of environmental contamination. To explore the possibility of contaminant-induced health alterations in this population, blood levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were quantified in free-ranging seals; relationships between contaminant exposure and several key hematological parameters were examined; and PCB levels in the present study were compared with levels determined in SFB seals a decade earlier. PCB residues in harbor seal blood decreased during the past decade, but remained at levels great enough that adverse reproductive and immunological effects might be expected. Main results included a positive association between leukocyte counts and PBDEs, PCBs, and DDE in seals, and an inverse relationship between red blood cell count and PBDEs. Although not necessarily pathologic, these responses may serve as sentinel indications of contaminant-induced alterations in harbor seals of SFB, which, in individuals with relatively high contaminant burdens, might include increased rates of infection and anemia. Copyright© Taylor & Francis Inc.
• Grigg, E., Allen, S., Green, D., & Markowitz, H. (2004). Harbor seal, Phoca vitulina richardii, population trends in the San Francisco Bay estuary, 1970-2002. California Fish and Game, 90(2).
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  Pacific harbor seals, Phoca vitulina richardii, have used the San Francisco Bay estuary in California as a nursery area and foraging site for thousands of years. Like other pinniped species, harbor seals in California were intensively hunted in the late 1800's and early 1900's, resulting in population declines obvious in the San Francisco Bay (SFB) by the 1920's. In 1972, the Marine Mammal Protection Act was passed, providing protection and management of harbor seal populations. We examined historical data (1970-1997) and our own ground counts at three primary SFB haulout sites (1998-2002) in order to understand the degree of recovery of the SFB harbor seal population. One of the largest estuaries on the west coast of the United States, SFB today is highly urbanized and heavily impacted by human activity. We documented a mixed response and recovery of harbor seals in SFB, likely due to a combination of factors, including habitat alteration, disturbance, pollution, and survey techniques. From 1970-2002, seal numbers at all three sites increased slightly during the fall/winter season, and increased at two sites during the pupping/molting season. At the largest SFB rookery site, however, no change was seen in seal numbers during the pupping/molting season.
• Grigg, E., Green, D., Allen, S., & Markowitz, H. (2002). Nocturnal and diurnal haul-out patterns of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) at Castro Rocks, San Francisco Bay, California. California Fish and Game, 88(1).
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  Surveys of harbor seals, Phoca vitulina richardsi, at Castro Rocks, San Francisco Bay (SFB), California, were conducted from May 1998 through April 2001. Surveys were conducted at all hours of the day and disturbance data and seal responses were recorded continuously during these surveys. Harbor seals hauled out at Castro Rocks during the daytime and nighttime throughout the year. Over the course of the study period, mean nighttime counts were significantly higher than mean daytime counts. Maximum daytime and nighttime seal counts were recorded during the fall season. Tidal dependence alone was not a clear predictor of fluctuations in seal numbers hauling out during the daytime compared to the nighttime. Seals at this site experienced high levels of disturbance from a variety of sources during the daytime and significantly lower levels of disturbance at night. We believe that, in this highly urbanized environment, high levels of daytime disturbance contribute to the higher use of this haul-out site at nighttime, versus daytime. Given projected increases in the number of people living and working around SFB, protecting the integrity of haul-out sites in SFB is an important facet of protecting the harbor seal population.

Proceedings Publications

• Galloway, M., Grigg, E., Green, D., Markowitz, H., Allen, S., & Morton, C. (2002, October). Differential scanning between sex and age classes of pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) at Yerba Buena Island. In California and World Ocean 2002: revisiting and revising California's ocean agenda.
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  Previous studies focusing on haul out behavior of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina spp.) have shown conflicting results in the frequency and the reasons for scanning. These studies indicate that scanning (movements increasing a seal's visual field) is used differently by one sex or by certain age classes of seals over others at different haul out sites and in different contexts. This study, which compares differences in the number of scans per unit time (scanning bouts) between seals of different ages and sexes, was conducted between October 1998 and September 1999 at Yerba Buena Island (YBI). YBI is one of the largest haul out sites in the urbanized estuary of San Francisco Bay, California. The haul out site, located along the southeast shoreline of YBI, is primarily utilized by adult male seals at all times of the year. During each survey, up to three seals at different locations of the site were selected. The behavior of the focal seals was recorded for 15 seconds per minute per seal for up to eight tenminute observations during 45 four-hour surveys. Analysis of the number of scanning bouts indicates that adult females and immature seals scanned significantly more often than adult males. This difference was not significant between adult females and immature seals, nor was it significant between the three groups in times of disturbance. This suggests that other factors, such as the high proportion of adult males at the site, might be a factor in the increased scanning rates of adult females and immature seals. Adult females and immature seals using the site may scan more frequently in order to avoid aggressive encounters between male seals.

Presentations

• da Vinci, G. J., Fausak, E. D., & Grigg, E. K. (2023, June 15-18). Defining dominance in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): A scoping review with recommendations for human-canine interactions.  . International Society for Anthrozoology (ISAZ) Conference. Edinburgh, Scotland: International Society for Anthrozoology.

Poster Presentations

• Delgado, M. M., Bolanos, C., & Grigg, E. K. (2024, June). Early life experiences of domestic cats (Felis catus) and eventual adopter satisfaction.  . Center for Animal Welfare Research Symposium 2024. Davis, CA, USA: University of California, Davis.