Gary E Schwartz

Interests

Teaching

Advanced Health Psychology, Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, Psychology of Truth Seeking

Research

1. Energy Psychology (e.g. research on Heart-Assisted Therapy for physical and emotional diseases) 2. Spiritual Psychology (e.g. controlled research with evidence-based research mediums on survival of consciousness after death; development of sophisticated technology for detecting the presence of spirit)3. Post-Material Science (e.g. theories and research on the primacy of consciousness in physics and psychology), and4. Psychology of Truth Seeking (e.g. research and applications of the Dimensions of an Enlightening Understanding System)

Courses

Scholarly Contributions

Books

• Schwartz, G. E. (2017). SUPER SYNCHRONICITY: Where Science and Spirit Meet. Vancouver, BC Canada: Param Media.

Chapters

• Schwartz, G. E. (2015). A White Crow Spirit: What Susy Smith has taught me about the other side afer she died. In Aspects of Consciousness(pp 1-14). Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015). Science and the Process of Responsible Belief: The Five Additive Criteria Test. In The Beacon of Mind: Reason and Intuition in the Ancient and Modern World(pp 86-105). Param Media.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015). Spirit and the Soul Phone: Who will use it "here" and "there"?. In Aspects of Consciousness(pp 253-262). Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies.
• Schwartz, G. E., Schloss, E. P., Cook, R., & Bourey, A. D. (2015). Enlightening Understanding: A twelve-dimensional system for fostering personal and planetary peac, wellness, and hope. In The Beacon of Mind: Reason and Inuition in the Ancient and Modern World(pp 106-131). Para Media.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014). Research on Healing Touch. In Healing Touch: Enhancing Life through Energy Healing. iUniverse.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014). The Soul Phone. In Afterlife Communication: 16 proven methods 85 true accounts(pp 91-106). Normal, IL: Greater Reality Publications.

Journals/Publications

• Hammerschlag, R., Baldwin, A. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2016). Human Subject Effects on Torsion Pendulum Oscillations: Importance of Establishing the Contribution of Thermal Convection Air Currents. Explore (New York, N.Y.).
• Hammerschlag, R., Linda Baldwin, A., & Schwartz, G. E. (2016). Human Subject Effects on Torsion Pendulum Oscillations: Further Evidence of Mediation by Convection Currents. Explore (New York, N.Y.), 12(6), 436-439.
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  When a human subject sits beneath a wire mesh, hemispheric torsion pendulum (TP) a rapid-onset series of oscillations at frequencies both higher and lower than the fundamental frequency of the TP have been consistently observed.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016). What is the Nature of a Post-Materialist Paradigm? Three Types of Theories. Explore (New York, N.Y.), 12(2), 123-7.
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  What does it mean to have a post-materialist theory? I propose that there are three classes or categories of theories. (1) Type I post-materialist theories: neo-physical theories that are derived from materialist theories, where the materialist theories are still seen as primary and are viewed as being fundamentally necessary to create "non-material" (yet physical) phenomena such as consciousness. (2) Type II post-materialist theories: post-materialist theories of consciousness existing alongside materialist theories, where each class of theories are seen as primary and are viewed as not being derivable from (i.e. are not reducible to) the other And (3) Type I post-materialist theories: where materialist theories are derived from, and are a subset of, more inclusive post-materialist theories of consciousness; here post-materialist theories are seen as primary and are viewed as the ultimate origin of material systems. Type I theories are the least controversial, Type III are the most controversial. The three types of theories are considered in the context of the history of the emergence of post-materialist science.
• Schwartz, S. A., Schwartz, G. E., & Dossey, L. (2016). Declaration for Integrative, Evidence-Based, End-of-Life Care that Incorporates Nonlocal Consciousness. EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing, 12(3), 162-164.
• Bell, I. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (2015). Enhancement of adaptive biological effects by nanotechnology preparation methods in homeopathic medicines. Homeopathy : the journal of the Faculty of Homeopathy, 104(2), 123-38.
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  Multiple studies have demonstrated that traditional homeopathic manufacturing reagents and processes can generate remedy source and silica nanoparticles (NPs). Homeopathically-made NPs would initiate adaptive changes in an organism as a complex adaptive system (CAS) or network. Adaptive changes would emerge from several different endogenous amplification processes that respond to exogenous danger or threat signals that manufactured nanomaterials convey, including (1) stochastic resonance (SR) in sensory neural systems and (2) time-dependent sensitization (TDS)/oscillation. SR is nonlinear coherent amplification of a weak signal by the superposition of a larger magnitude white noise containing within it the same frequencies of the weak signal. TDS is progressive response magnitude amplification and oscillatory reversal in response direction to a given low dose at physiological limits with the passage of time. Hormesis is an overarching adaptive phenomenon that reflects the observed nonlinear adaptive dose-response relationship. Remedies would act as enhanced micro- and nanoscale forms of their source material via direct local ligand-receptor interactions at very low potencies and/or by triggering systemic adaptive network dynamical effects via their NP-based electromagnetic, optical, and quantum mechanical properties at higher potencies. Manufacturing parameters including dilution modify sizes, shapes, and surface charges of nanoparticles, thereby causing differences in physico-chemical properties and biological effects. Based on surface area, size, shape, and charge, nanoparticles adsorb a complex pattern of serum proteins, forming a protein corona on contact that constitutes a unique biological identity. The protein corona may capture individualized dysfunctional biological mediator information of the organism onto the surfaces of the salient, i.e., resonant, remedy nanostructures. SR would amplify this weak signal from the salient remedy NPs with protein corona adsorbed, leading to sensitized nonlinear dynamical modulation of gene expression and associated changes in biological signaling pathways. When the system reaches its physiological limits during a homeopathic aggravation or the natural disease state, the amplified remedy signal triggers a nonlinear reversal in dynamical direction back towards health.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015). Can spirits pose for psychic sculptors? Evidence of Spirit Collaboration. The Journal for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies, 92-97.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015). God, Synchronicity, and Postmaterialist Psychology III: Additional Real-Life Evidence and the Higher Power Healing Hypothesis. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 2(4), 2890302.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014). God, synchronicity, and postmaterialist psychology: Proof-of-concept real-life evidence. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 1(2), 153-162.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014). Manifesto for a post-materialist science. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 10(5), 272-274.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014). You see, but you do not observe: Holmes' five levels of comprehension. The Watsonian: The Journal of the John H Watson Society, 2(2), 99-110.
• Baldwin, A. L., Fullmer, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2013). Comparison of physical therapy with energy healing for improving range of motion in subjects with restricted shoulder mobility. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013.
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  Abstract: Two forms of energy healing, Reconnective Healing (RH) and Reiki, which involve light or no touch, were tested for efficacy against physical therapy (PT) for increasing limited range of motion (ROM) of arm elevation in the scapular plane. Participants were assigned to one of 5 groups: PT, Reiki, RH, Sham Healing, or no treatment. Except for no treatment, participants were blinded as to grouping. Range of Motion, self-reported pain, and heart rate variability (HRV) were assessed before and after a 10-minute session. On average, for PT, Reiki, RH, Sham Healing, and no treatment, respectively, ROM increased by 12°, 20°, 26°, 0.6°, and 3° and pain score decreased by 11.5%, 10.1%, 23.9%, 15.4%, and 0%. Physical therapy, Reiki, and RH were more effective than Sham Healing for increasing ROM (PT: F=8.05, P=0.008; Reiki: F=10.48, P=0.003; RH: F=30.19, P
• Baldwin, A. L., Rand, W. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2013). Practicing reiki does not appear to routinely produce high-intensity electromagnetic fields from the heart or hands of reiki practitioners. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 19(6), 518-526.
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  PMID: 23210468;Abstract: Objectives: The study objective was to determine whether Reiki practice increases the electromagnetic field strength from the heart and hands of Reiki practitioners. Rationale: This study repeated experiments performed 20 years ago that detected exceptionally high-strength electromagnetic fields (100 nT) from the hands of several energy healers. The equipment used was far more sensitive than in the original studies. Design: Using a Magnes 2500 WH SQUID, the electromagnetic field from the hands and heart of each of 3 Reiki masters was measured when they were (1) not practicing Reiki, (2) sending Reiki to a distant person, and (3) sending Reiki to a person in the room. Similar measurements were made on 4 Reiki-naïve volunteers before and after they received a Reiki training/attunement enabling them to self-administer Reiki. Setting/location: The study setting was the Scripps Institute, San Diego, CA. Outcome measures: Magnetic field intensity of hands and heart recorded over 5-minute sessions with corresponding frequency spectra. Results: For all subjects, under all conditions, sensors closest to the heart and the hands produced spikes of 2 pT corresponding to the heartbeat. Recordings from 2 Masters and 1 volunteer showed a low-intensity sine wave oscillation of 0.25-0.3 Hz (intensity 0.1-0.5 pT) whether or not they were practicing Reiki. This oscillation probably reflected respiratory sinus arrhythmia, judged by comparison with recent previous studies. These signals were not detected in the original studies. In the current study, no electromagnetic field intensities greater than 3 pT were observed in any of the recordings. Conclusions: Practicing Reiki does not appear to routinely produce high-intensity electromagnetic fields from the heart or hands. Alternatively, it is possible that energy healing is stimulated by tuning into an external environmental radiation, such as the Schumann resonance, which was blocked in the present study by the strong magnetic shielding surrounding the SQUID. © 2013, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Bell, I. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (2013). Adaptive network nanomedicine: An integrated model for homeopathic medicine. Frontiers in Bioscience - Scholar, 5 S(2), 685-708.
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  PMID: 23277079;Abstract: This paper presents an evidence-based model for the nature and mode of action of homeopathic remedies. Recent studies reveal that homeopathic remedies contain nanoparticles (NPs) of source materials formed by "topdown" mechanical grinding in lactose and/or succussion (forceful agitation) in ethanolic solutions. Silica nanostructures formed during succussions in glass and/or biosynthesized by specific plant extract tinctures also may acquire and convey epitaxial information from remedy source materials into higher potencies. NPs have enhanced bioavailability, adsorptive capabilities, adjuvant reactivity, electromagnetic and quantum properties compared with their bulk forms. NPs induce adaptive changes in the organism at nontoxic doses (hormesis), serving as salient, low level danger signals to the biological stress response network. Activation of stress response effectors, including heat shock proteins, inflammasomes, cytokines and neuroendocrine pathways, initiate beneficial compensatory reactions across the interconnected networks of the organism as a complex adaptive system. Homeopathic remedies act by stimulating hormetic adaptive rather than conventional pharmacological effects. Updating terminology from "homeopathy" to "adaptive network nanomedicine" reflects the integration of this historical but controversial medical system with modern scientific findings.
• Bell, I. R., Brooks, A. J., Howerter, A., Jackson, N., & Schwartz, G. E. (2013). Acute electroencephalographic effects from repeated olfactory administration of homeopathic remedies in individuals with self-reported chemical sensitivity. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 19(1), 46-57.
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  PMID: 23341426;Abstract: Background Homeopaths report that individuals with heightened self-reported environmental chemical intolerance (CI) exhibit increased reactivity to homeopathic remedies. Persons high in CI sensitize their electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha responses to repeated intermittent chemical exposures. Primary Study Objective The present feasibility study explored interactions between CI and one of two specific homeopathic remedies over time (Sulphur or Pulsatilla nigricans [Pulsatilla]). Design This study used a two-arm, double-blind, placebo-controlled repeated measures design. Intervention Participants underwent a series of three once-weekly sessions during which they repeatedly sniffed one remedy (6c, 12c, 30c; one potency per week) matched to their Homeopathic Constitutional Type Questionnaire (CTQ) type and two solvent controls (distilled water and a waterethanol [95%] solution). Within sessions, remedies and control solvents were administered via 2-second sniffs (eight sniffs of each of four different succussion levels per potency, in randomized order). Participants Participants were college student volunteers (N = 96, ages 18-30, both sexes), screened for good health and relatively elevated Sulphur or Pulsatilla symptom pattern scores on the Homeopathic Constitutional Type Questionnaire (CTQ). Participants also completed a validated trait CI scale. Primary Outcome Measures Average 19-lead relative EEG alpha power (alpha 1 8-10 Hz; alpha 2 10-12 Hz). Results Trait CI interacted significantly with time factors for each remedy (both over visit weeks and over sniff cycles during sessions). The patterns were nonlinear and differed between the two remedies. Individuals high in CI showed greater variability over time in remedy EEG alpha effects than did those low in CI. Conclusion The data suggest that CI, with an underlying susceptibility to time-dependent sensitization and oscillatory responses, could contribute to nonlinear dose-response patterns and inconsistent reproducibility of homeopathic clinical care and research.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Boyer, N. N., Koithan, M., & Brooks, A. J. (2013). Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatment in public health. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 5(2), 126-140.
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  Abstract: Introduction: Infectious diseases present public health challenges worldwide. An emerging integrative approach to treating infectious diseases is using nanoparticle (NP) forms of traditional and alternative medicines. Advantages of nanomedicine delivery methods include better disease targeting, especially for intracellular pathogens, ability to cross membranes and enter cells, longer duration drug action, reduced side effects, and cost savings from lower doses. Methods: We searched Pubmed articles in English with keywords related to nanoparticles and nanomedicine. Nanotechnology terms were also combined with keywords for drug delivery, infectious diseases, herbs, antioxidants, homeopathy, and adaptation. Results: NPs are very small forms of material substances, measuring 1-100. nm along at least one dimension. Compared with bulk forms, NPs' large ratio of surface-area-to-volume confers increased reactivity and adsorptive capacity, with unique electromagnetic, chemical, biological, and quantum properties. Nanotechnology uses natural botanical agents for green manufacturing of less toxic NPs. Discussion: Nanoparticle herbs and nutriceuticals can treat infections via improved bioavailability and antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects. Recent studies demonstrate that homeopathic medicines may contain source and/or silica nanoparticles because of their traditional manufacturing processes. Homeopathy, as a form of nanomedicine, has a promising history of treating epidemic infectious diseases, including malaria, leptospirosis and HIV/AIDS, in addition to acute upper respiratory infections. Adaptive changes in the host's complex networks underlie effects. Conclusions: Nanomedicine is integrative, blending modern technology with natural products to reduce toxicity and support immune function. Nanomedicine using traditional agents from alternative systems of medicine can facilitate progress in integrative public health approaches to infectious diseases. © 2012 Elsevier GmbH.
• Lucchetti, G., Dos, L., Lucchetti, A. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Nasri, F. (2013). Rare medical conditions and suggestive past-life memories: A Case report and literature review. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 9(6), 372-376.
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  PMID: 24199777;Abstract: We aim to report the case of a 38-year-old male with suggestive past-life memories during a regression session and to show how these memories were related to unusual medical conditions: (1) isolated obstruction of the right coronary artery in a young patient, (2) omental infarction, and (3) right aortic arch with isolation of the left subclavian artery. These conditions were related to the following suggestive past-life memories: (1) a priest who committed suicide with a crucifix nailed to his chest and (2) a medieval weapon (skull flail) hitting his cervical and left back region. There was an intriguing relation between the patient's suggestive past-life memories and rare medical conditions. In this article, the authors highlight possible explanations, rarity of findings, and similarities/differences from previous cases and potential pitfalls in this area. © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014). Evaluating the use of gas discharge visualization to measure massage therapy outcomes. Journal of Alternative and Complimentary Medicine.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014). God, synchronicity, and postmaterialist psychology II: Replication and extension of real-life evidence. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 2(1), 86-95.
• Schwartz, G., & Schwartz, G. E. (0). Sexual violence against women: prevalence, consequences, societal factors, and prevention. American journal of preventive medicine, 7(6).
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  Sexual assault of women in the United States may have a prevalence rate of 25% or more. Moreover, the majority of survivors of sexual assault know their assailants. Consequences of assault may be severe and long-term, including fear and anxiety, depression, suicide attempts, difficulties with daily functioning and interpersonal relationships, sexual dysfunction, and a whole range of somatic complaints. Recent evidence implicates societal factors, such as acceptance of rape myths, rigid sex role stereotyping beliefs, and acceptance of violence as a legitimate means for obtaining compliance in interpersonal relationships, in the etiology of sexual violence against women. I present a model for primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention of rape. Primary prevention represents a program of anticipatory guidance in a developmental framework. Secondary prevention entails identification of and early intervention in dysfunctional families. Tertiary prevention consists of the appropriate treatment of the survivor of sexual assault to prevent or minimize subsequent physical and psychological problems. This preventive framework may be incorporated into the practice of clinical preventive medicine and primary care.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., Fernandez, M., & Schwartz, G. E. (0). Neural sensitization model for multiple chemical sensitivity: overview of theory and empirical evidence. Toxicology and industrial health, 15(3-4).
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  This paper summarizes theory and evidence for a neural sensitization model of hyperresponsivity to low-level chemical exposures in multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). MCS is a chronic polysymptomatic condition in which patients report illness from low levels of many different, structurally unrelated environmental chemicals (chemical intolerance, CI). Neural sensitization is the progressive host amplification of a response over time from repeated, intermittent exposures to a stimulus. Drugs, chemicals, endogenous mediators, and exogenous stressors can all initiate sensitization and can exhibit cross-sensitization between different classes of stimuli. The properties of sensitization overlap much of the clinical phenomenology of MCS. Animal studies have demonstrated sensitization to toluene, formaldehyde, and certain pesticides, as well as cross-sensitization, e.g., formaldehyde and cocaine. Controlled human studies in persons with self-reported CI have shown heightened sensitizability in the laboratory to nonspecific experimental factors and to specific chemical exposures. Useful outcome measures include spectral electroencephalography, blood pressure, heart rate, and plasma beta-endorphin. Findings implicate, in part, dopaminergic mesolimbic pathways and limbic structures. A convergence of evidence suggests that persons with MCS or with low-level CI may share some characteristics with individuals genetically vulnerable to substance abuse: (a) elevated family histories of alcohol or drug problems; (b) heightened capacity for sensitization of autonomic variables in the laboratory; (c) increased amounts of electroencephalographic alpha activity at rest and under challenge conditions over time. Sensitization is compatible with other models for MCS as well. The neural sensitization model provides a direction for further systematic human and animal research on the physiological bases of MCS and CI.
• Schwartz, G., Fernandez, M., Bell, I. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (0). EEG sensitization during chemical exposure in women with and without chemical sensitivity of unknown etiology. Toxicology and industrial health, 15(3-4).
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  This study tested the sensitization model proposed by Bell et al. [Bell I.R., Miller C.S. and Schwartz G.E. An olfactory-limbic model of multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome: possible relationship to kindling and affective spectrum disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 1992: 32: 218-242] to study chemical sensitivity. The sensitization model indicates that a pharmacological stimulus or a traumatic event which elicits a strong response can sensitize limbic and/or mesolimbic pathways; and subsequent less intense trauma or stimuli, in the same or different modality, can elicit an amplified response. Three groups of subjects were tested: (1) women who reported chemical sensitivity and no sexual abuse (chemically sensitive, CS); (2) sexually abused (SA) women without chemical sensitivity; and (3) healthy women without chemical sensitivity or sexual abuse history (normal, N). All subjects were exposed to odorant and nonodorous control stimuli once a week for 3 weeks. Electroencephalographic activity was recorded while subjects sniffed the odorant and control stimuli. Results of the study revealed that both the CS and the SA group showed electroencephalogram (EEG) alpha sensitization across experimental sessions, while the N group showed little change over time. Additionally, EEG findings revealed that the CS group generated significantly greater alpha activity than the other two groups. Finally, while the groups were different on measures of psychological distress, these differences did not diminish the EEG findings. In summary, these findings suggest that intermittent exposure to chemicals elicits sensitization in CS and SA women without chemical sensitivity, supporting our expectations that chemical sensitivity is, in part, a manifestation of time-dependent sensitization (TDS). Additionally, these EEG findings indicate that CS women are unlike SA and healthy women in the amount of EEG alpha activity they generate. Finally, these findings indicate that psychological factors as assessed in this study do not explain electrophysiological differences between chemically and non-chemically-sensitive women.
• Schwartz, G., Lane, R. D., Sechrest, L., Reidel, R., Weldon, V., Kaszniak, A., & Schwartz, G. E. (0). Impaired verbal and nonverbal emotion recognition in alexithymia. Psychosomatic medicine, 58(3).
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  Although clinical observations suggest that alexithymic individuals have a deficit in their ability to recognize emotional stimuli and that this deficit is not simply due to a problem in verbal labeling, these two hypotheses have not been empirically confirmed. Three hundred eighty participants in a community survey without current or past histories of psychiatric disorder completed two independent measures of alexithymia [the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS) and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20)] and the Perception of Affect Task (PAT), a 140-item measure of the ability to match emotion stimuli. The PAT includes four subtasks that require the subject to match verbal or nonverbal emotion stimuli with verbal or nonverbal emotion responses. The subtasks include matching sentences and words (verbal-verbal), faces and words (nonverbal-verbal), sentences and faces (verbal-nonverbal), and faces and photographs of scenes (nonverbal-nonverbal). Across the entire sample, higher (alexithymic) TAS-20 and lower LEAS scores were both correlated with lower accuracy rates on each of the subtasks of the PAT (p < .001), accounting for 10.5% and 18.4% of the variance, respectively. Fifty-one subjects met TAS-20 criteria for alexithymia. Alexithymic individuals scored lower than other subjects on purely nonverbal matching, purely verbal matching, and mixed verbal-nonverbal matching (all p < .001). These results suggest that alexithymia is associated with impaired verbal and nonverbal recognition of emotion stimuli and that the hallmark of alexithymia, a difficulty in putting emotion into words, may be a marker of a more general impairment in the capacity for emotion information processing.
• Schwartz, K. L., Baldwin, A. L., Rand, W. L., & Schwartz, K. L. (2013). Practicing Reiki does not appear to routinely produce high-intensity electromagnetic fields from the heart or hands of Reiki practitioners. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 19(6).
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  The study objective was to determine whether Reiki practice increases the electromagnetic field strength from the heart and hands of Reiki practitioners.
• Schwartz, K. L., Beischel, J., & Schwartz, K. L. (0). Anomalous information reception by research mediums demonstrated using a novel triple-blind protocol. Explore (New York, N.Y.), 3(1).
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  Investigating the information reported by mediums is ultimately important in determining the relationship between brain and consciousness in addition to being of deep concern to the public.
• Schwartz, K. L., Bell, I. R., & Schwartz, K. L. (2013). Adaptive network nanomedicine: an integrated model for homeopathic medicine. Frontiers in bioscience (Scholar edition), 5.
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  This paper presents an evidence-based model for the nature and mode of action of homeopathic remedies. Recent studies reveal that homeopathic remedies contain nanoparticles (NPs) of source materials formed by "top-down" mechanical grinding in lactose and/or succussion (forceful agitation) in ethanolic solutions. Silica nanostructures formed during succussions in glass and/or biosynthesized by specific plant extract tinctures also may acquire and convey epitaxial information from remedy source materials into higher potencies. NPs have enhanced bioavailability, adsorptive capabilities, adjuvant reactivity, electromagnetic and quantum properties compared with their bulk forms. NPs induce adaptive changes in the organism at nontoxic doses (hormesis), serving as salient, low level danger signals to the biological stress response network. Activation of stress response effectors, including heat shock proteins, inflammasomes, cytokines and neuroendocrine pathways, initiate beneficial compensatory reactions across the interconnected networks of the organism as a complex adaptive system. Homeopathic remedies act by stimulating hormetic adaptive rather than conventional pharmacological effects. Updating terminology from "homeopathy" to "adaptive network nanomedicine" reflects the integration of this historical but controversial medical system with modern scientific findings.
• Schwartz, K. L., Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, K. L. (0). Translating a nonlinear systems theory model for homeopathy into empirical tests. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 8(3).
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  Various investigators have proposed that nonlinear systems theory, notably chaos and complexity theory, provides a heuristically useful modelfor conceptualizing the way in which complementary and alternative medicine therapies, which purport to modify subtle energies, effect change throughout the individual as a whole. In this paper we apply this theory to classical homeopathy and outline an empirical approach for testing the resultant hypotheses. Such research may advance understanding of the mechanisms of homeopathic remedy effects and provide a direction for homeopathic research that expands the previous emphasis on clinical trials and the remedies themselves. In refocusing attention on the dynamics of the patient as a nonlinear complex system, the proposed research program is consistent with the homeopathic emphasis on the individual rather than the disease. This approach may have additional applications that can elucidate similar effects of other energy medicine modalities (eg, acupuncture) on the healing process of the person as a unified whole.
• Schwartz, K. L., Schwartz, K. L., Bell, I. R., Brooks, A. J., Howerter, A., & Jackson, N. (2013). Acute electroencephalographic effects from repeated olfactory administration of homeopathic remedies in individuals with self-reported chemical sensitivity. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 19(1).
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  Homeopaths report that individuals with heightened self-reported environmental chemical intolerance (CI) exhibit increased reactivity to homeopathic remedies. Persons high in CI sensitize their electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha responses to repeated intermittent chemical exposures.
• Schwartz, K. L., Shiflett, S. C., & Schwartz, K. L. (0). Effects of acupuncture in reducing attrition and mortality in HIV-infected men with peripheral neuropathy. Explore (New York, N.Y.), 7(3).
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  A clinical trial reported in JAMA (Shay et al, 1998), involving acupuncture and amitriptyline in HIV-infected patients, concluded that there was no effect for either acupuncture or amitriptyline on neuropathic pain. However, a recent reassessment of this study showed that there were really three different and independent clinical trials, each with a different research design, which had been combined into a single database and consequently analyzed with a relatively insensitive statistics. When only the first substudy, factorially crossed design involving acupuncture and amitriptyline, was reanalyzed by itself using more powerful statistics, it was found that acupuncture and amitriptyline both worked independently to reduce pain, but also that acupuncture worked best in the absence of amitriptyline, and that there may have been adverse events associated with the combination of the two treatments. The present study reports the reanalysis of the second of the original independent studies involving only acupuncture and sham acupuncture, to determine whether the results confirm acupuncture-related findings from the first substudy.
• Baldwin, A. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2012). Physiological changes in energy healers during self-practice. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 20(5), 299-305.
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  PMID: 22863644;Abstract: Objective: The physiological status of energy healers during self-practice (activating the healing state without the presence of a recipient) has rarely been examined. This study assessed self practice-related changes in autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity in Reiki Masters and advanced Reconnective Healers. Design: Measurements of heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV) and cutaneous blood perfusion of the fingers, of 31 Reiki masters and 50 experienced Reconnective Healers were made before, during and after self-practice. Corresponding measurements were made on 32 control subjects, who gazed at a calming picture in place of self-practice. Setting: Experiments were conducted in a laboratory setting. Results: During self-practice by Reconnective Healers, the average HR did not change significantly compared to control subjects but the average HRV and the root mean square of successive differences in inter-beat interval (RMSSD) decreased by 11. ms (95% CI 0.6, 4.6, p=0.009) and 13. ms (95% CI 0.2, 4.1, p=0.031) more than in control subjects, respectively, indicating reduced parasympathetic nervous activity. Reiki Masters showed no significant change in HR, HRV or RMSSD compared to control subjects. Cutaneous blood perfusion increased during self-practice relative to control subjects in both Reconnective Healers (6.5%; p=0.012) and Reiki Masters (13.7%; p
• Bell, I. R., Howerter, A., Jackson, N., Brooks, A. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (2012). Multiweek resting EEG cordance change patterns from repeated olfactory activation with two constitutionally salient homeopathic remedies in healthy young adults. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 18(5), 445-453.
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  PMID: 22594648;PMCID: PMC3353816;Abstract: Objectives: Electroencephalography (EEG) offers psychophysiologic tools to improve sensitivity for detecting objective effects in complementary and alternative medicine. This current investigation extended prior clinical research studies to evaluate effects of one of two different homeopathic remedies on resting EEG cordance after an olfactory activation protocol on healthy young adults with remedy-relevant, self-perceived characteristics. Methods: Ninety-seven (7) young adults (N=97, mean age 19 years, 55% women) with good self-rated global health and screened for homeopathic constitutional types consistent with one of two remedies (either Sulphur or Pulsatilla) underwent three weekly laboratory sessions. At each visit, subjects had 5-minute resting, eyes-closed EEG recordings before and after a placebo-controlled olfactory activation task with their constitutionally relevant verum remedy. One remedy potency (6c, 12c, or 30c) used per week, was presented in a randomized order over the 3 sessions. Prefrontal resting EEG cordance values at Fp1 and Fp2 were computed from artifact-free 2-minute EEG samples from the presniffing and postsniffing rest periods. Cordance derives from an algorithm that incorporates absolute and relative EEG values. Results: The data showed significant two-way oscillatory interactions of remedy by time for ß, α, θ, and δ cordance, controlling for gender and chemical sensitivity. Conclusions: EEG cordance provided a minimally invasive technique for assessing objective nonlinear physiologic effects of two different homeopathic remedies salient to the individuals who received them. Time factors modulated the direction of effects. Given previous evidence of correlations between cordance and single-photon emission computed tomography, these findings encourage additional neuroimaging research on nonlinear psychophysiologic effects of specific homeopathic remedies. © Copyright 2012, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 2012.
• Bell, I. R., Howerter, A., Jackson, N., Brooks, A. J., Schwartz, G. E., & Hinterberger, T. (2012). Effects of two homeopathic remedies on EEG cordance. Forschende Komplementarmedizin, 19(4), 208-209.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2012). From parapsychology to postmaterialist psychology: The emerging integrative science of consciousness, spirit, and soul. Journal of Parapsychology, 76(SUPPL), 49-51.
• Schwartz, K. L., Baldwin, A. L., & Schwartz, K. L. (2012). Physiological changes in energy healers during self-practice. Complementary therapies in medicine, 20(5).
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  The physiological status of energy healers during self-practice (activating the healing state without the presence of a recipient) has rarely been examined. This study assessed self practice-related changes in autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity in Reiki Masters and advanced Reconnective Healers.
• Schwartz, K. L., Bell, I. R., Howerter, A., Jackson, N., Brooks, A. J., & Schwartz, K. L. (2012). Multiweek resting EEG cordance change patterns from repeated olfactory activation with two constitutionally salient homeopathic remedies in healthy young adults. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 18(5).
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  Electroencephalography (EEG) offers psychophysiologic tools to improve sensitivity for detecting objective effects in complementary and alternative medicine. This current investigation extended prior clinical research studies to evaluate effects of one of two different homeopathic remedies on resting EEG cordance after an olfactory activation protocol on healthy young adults with remedy-relevant, self-perceived characteristics.
• Bell, I. R., Brooks, A. J., Howerter, A., Jackson, N., & Schwartz, G. E. (2011). Short-term effects of repeated olfactory administration of homeopathic Sulphur or Pulsatilla on electroencephalographic alpha power in healthy young adults. Homeopathy, 100(4), 203-211.
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  PMID: 21962194;PMCID: PMC3190301;Abstract: Introduction: Homeopathic pathogenetic trials usually rely on symptom self report measures. Adding objective biomarkers could enhance detection of subtle initial remedy effects. The present feasibility study examined electroencephalographic (EEG) effects of repeated olfactory administration of two polycrest remedies. Methods: College student volunteers (ages 18-30, both sexes) from an introductory psychology course were screened for good health and relatively elevated Sulphur or Pulsatilla symptom scores on the Homeopathic Constitutional Type Questionnaire (CTQ). Subjects underwent a series of 3 once-weekly double-blind sessions during which they repeatedly sniffed the remedy matched to their CTQ type and solvent controls. Each remedy was given in a 6c, 12c, and 30c potency, one potency per week, in randomly assigned order. Solvent controls included both plain distilled water and a water-ethanol (95%) solution. All sniff test solutions were further diluted just prior to laboratory sessions (0.5 ml test solution in 150 ml distilled water). Within a session, remedies and control solvents were administered via 2-s sniffs (8 sniffs of each of 4 different succussion levels for the potency in randomized order). Primary outcome variable was relative EEG power (alpha 1 8-10 Hz; alpha 2 10-12 Hz) averaged over 19 electrode sites, including all succussions for a given potency. Results: Mixed-effect models revealed significant main effects for remedy type (Sulphur > Pulsatilla) in both alpha bands, controlling for gender, baseline resting EEG alpha, and solvent control responses. Additional analyses showed significant nonlinear interactions between dilution and time (weekly session) in alpha 2 for both remedies and alpha 1 for Sulphur. Conclusion: EEG alpha offers an objective biomarker of remedy effects for future studies and potential method for distinguishing time-dependent effects of specific remedies and remedy potencies from one another. © 2011 The Faculty of Homeopathy.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2011). Photonic measurement of apparent presence of spirit using a computer automated system. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 7(2), 100-109.
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  PMID: 21397871;Abstract: Background: Research investigating the potential of detecting the purported presence of spirit (POS) has been hampered by the necessity of employing a human being to collect the data. To infer the presence of alleged spirit, it is essential to remove the simultaneous presence of an experimenter (POE), thereby eliminating his or her physical energy as well as accompanying conscious intentions and expectations. Objective: The purpose of these two proof of concept experiments was to explore the feasibility of completely automating data collection in the absence of an experimenter to determine if evidence consistent with POS was still obtained. Design: A computer automated system was developed making it possible to collect all data in the absence of an experimenter (thereby achieving complete experimenter blinding). In the evenings, the computer would perform as follows: (1) start the experimental run at random times, (2) conduct 30-minute baseline as well as POS trials involving two different alleged spirits, and (3) record background light in a completely dark chamber with a highly sensitive low-light Princeton Instruments charge-coupled device (CCD) camera system. Setting: The CCD camera and light-tight recording chamber were housed in a light-tight room; the computer, large screen monitor, and speakers were housed in a separate control room. Participants: The participants were two purported spirits involved in previous research published in this journal, in which a silicon photomultiplier system was used. Intervention: The primary intervention was the computer selecting and presenting visual and auditory information inviting Spirit 1 or Spirit 2 to enter the chamber in the absence of experimenter presence and awareness. Main Outcome Measurements: The CCD camera provided 512 × 512 pixel images of 30-minute exposures (reflecting a combination of possible background light plus instrument dark noise). The images were imported into image processing software, and two-dimensional fast fourier transform (FFT) analyses were performed. Visual examinations of the FFT images were performed; average brightness levels of the FFTs were calculated and subjected to repeated measures analyses of variance. Results: Compared with prebaseline and postbaseline images, the POS trials were associated with reliable increases in the average brightness of the FFT images, suggesting increased structure of the background light as revealed in the FFTs. Conclusion: These findings indicate that POE per se is not sufficient to explain the observed POS effects. Future experiments can address the remaining potential psi interpretations (decision augmentation theory [DAT] and retro psychokinesis [PK]) as well as the source of the observed information (ie, the chamber, cosmic rays, and/or the CCD chip itself). © 2011 Elsevier Inc.
• Schwartz, K. L., Bell, I. R., Brooks, A. J., Howerter, A., Jackson, N., & Schwartz, K. L. (2011). Short-term effects of repeated olfactory administration of homeopathic sulphur or pulsatilla on electroencephalographic alpha power in healthy young adults. Homeopathy : the journal of the Faculty of Homeopathy, 100(4).
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  Homeopathic pathogenetic trials usually rely on symptom self report measures. Adding objective biomarkers could enhance detection of subtle initial remedy effects. The present feasibility study examined electroencephalographic (EEG) effects of repeated olfactory administration of two polycrest remedies.
• Shiflett, S. C., & Schwartz, G. E. (2011). Effects of acupuncture in reducing attrition and mortality in HIV-infected men with peripheral neuropathy. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 7(3), 148-154.
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  PMID: 21571233;Abstract: Objective: A clinical trial reported in JAMA (Shay et al, 1998), involving acupuncture and amitriptyline in HIV-infected patients, concluded that there was no effect for either acupuncture or amitriptyline on neuropathic pain. However, a recent reassessment of this study showed that there were really three different and independent clinical trials, each with a different reseach design, which had been combined into a single database and consequently analyzed with a relatively insensitive statistics. When only the first substudy, factorially crossed design involving acupuncture and amitriptyline, was reanalyzed by itself using more powerful statistics, it was found that acupuncture and amitriptyline both worked independently to reduce pain, but also that acupuncture worked best in the absence of amitriptyline, and that there may have been adverse events associated with the combination of the two treatments. The present study reports the reanalysis of the second of the original independent studies involving only acupuncture and sham acupuncture, to determine whether the results confirm acupuncture-related findings from the first substudy. Participants: Subjects were 114 HIV-infected men with pain associated with peripheral neuropathy in the early 1990s, when antiretroviral drug cocktails were just beginning to be available in experimental form. Research Design: The second of the independent studies in the original report by Shlay et al involved a single factor with two levels: a 14-week standardized acupuncture regimen and its control (off-point sham acupuncture). In addition, physical functioning at baseline (high or low, based on the Karnofsky scale), was factorially crossed with the acupuncture factor in our analyses. Primary data were reanalyzed using repeated-measures ANCOVA in an intention-to-treat procedure, and categorical data were analyzed by the Pearson chi-square test. Outcome Measure: Pain intensity, pain relief, mortality, and attrition. Results: Whereas the results were inconclusive for the pain measures, acupuncture had a strong and positive effect on attrition and mortality. These results were most pronounced among patients with poorest physical functioning at the beginning of the study. Overall, acupuncture was associated with lower attrition rate (27.6% vs. 44.6%, P = .058), and a zero mortality rate (0% vs. 12.5%, P = .047). This protective effect of acupuncture was visible primarily in subjects in poorer health (0% vs. 23.8%, P = .047). Conclusions: Acupuncture was clearly effective in reducing attrition and mortality in this sample, especially when health status was taken into account, but results for pain relief were mixed. These results add further evidence that the use of the most sensitive statistics available increases the chance of detecting actual effects due to acupuncture (and other treatments as well). Moreover, these results replicated most of the findings that did not involve the presence of amitriptyline from the initial independent study in this research project. The combined results of therse two studies strongly support the importance of recognizing that interactions involving acupuncture and other treatments, may positively as well as negatively modify main effect results in clinical trials, and thus must be recognized and systematially explored. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for moving toward a whole-systems approach to biomedical research. © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
• Shiflett, S. C., & Schwartz, G. E. (2011). Meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) involving acupuncture for labour pain shows acupuncture to be more effective than comparison treatments in several significant circumstances. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 118(1), 100-101.
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  PMID: 21143748;
• Schwartz, G. E. (2010). Possible application of silicon photomultiplier technology to detect the presence of spirit and intention: three proof-of-concept experiments.. Explore (New York, N.Y.), 6(3), 166-171.
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  PMID: 20451150;Abstract: CONTEXT: Research investigating the survival of consciousness hypothesis has been hampered by the lack of an independent measure of the purported presence of spirit (POS). Although numerous anecdotes involving electronic devices (including tape recorders, answering machines, and computers) claim that POS can be detected with sensitive electromagnetic sensors, little systematic laboratory research has investigated this possibility. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this exploratory laboratory research was to test the feasibility of using a state-of-the-art silicon photomultiplier system to detect low photon levels potentially associated with POS. A PCDMini photon counting device manufactured by sensL provided a sensitive measure of sums of photons over time. DESIGN: Three proof-of-concept experiments were conducted. Each included multiple five-minute trials of "invited spirit" conditions as well as baseline controls. One experiment included a set of 10 noninvited control trials as well as controls for experimenter intention per se. SETTING: Data were collected as part of a university laboratory devoted to researching advances in consciousness and health. PARTICIPANTS: The participants were purported spirits presumably motivated to participate in the research. INTERVENTION: The primary intervention was the experimenter's intention for purported spirits to enter the light-tight chamber on specified trials. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: In a light-tight chamber, the PCDMini device software counted and displayed individual sums of typically 13 to 25 photon detections per approximately 90-milliseconds time periods (in complete darkness, most time periods contained zero photons detected); the number of photon sums could be counted precisely in five-minute periods. RESULTS: The average number of photon sums was found to be significantly higher in purported POS trials compared with noninvited trials. Matched control trials as well as explicit experimenter intention trials showed no effects. CONCLUSION: Silicon photomultiplier devices may be sufficiently sensitive to investigate the POS and experimenter intention (psychokinesis) hypotheses. Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2010). William James and the search for scientific evidence of life after death: Past, present, and possible future. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 17(11-12), 121-152.
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  Abstract: William James's historic fascination with psychic phenomena, including the possibility of life after death, has become more widely known with the publication of recent books and articles on this controversial aspect of his scientific legacy. However, little is known about the emerging evidence suggesting the possibility that James's scientific interest in these topics has not waned since he died. This paper reviews preliminary observations, including two exploratory double-blinded mediumship investigations, which are consistent with the hypothesis that James (with others) may be continuing his lifelong quest to address the question of the survival of consciousness after physical death 'from the other side'. These proof-of-concept investigations illustrate how future systematic laboratory research is possible. The limitations of current neuroscience methods are explicated in terms of investigating the hypothesis of the brain as a possible antenna-receiver for consciousness. If James's tentative conclusion about the nature of the relationship between consciousness and the brain turn out to be accurate, then it is logically plausible (if not essential) to posit the possibility that his efforts have persisted in the recent past and present, and may even continue in the future. Scientific integrity plus the pursuit of verity require our being open to this important theoretical and empirical possibility. © Imprint Academic 2010.
• Shiflett, S. C., & Schwartz, G. E. (2010). Statistical reanalysis of a randomized trial of acupuncture for pain reveals positive effects as well as adverse treatment interactions on pain, attrition, and mortality. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 6(4), 246-255.
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  PMID: 20633839;Abstract: Objective: The aim of this study was to determine, using analysis of covariance, whether a statistical reanalysis of a previously published study on neuropathic pain would reveal undetected significant effects of acupuncture and amitriptyline on pain, attrition, and mortality in HIV-infected patients. Background: Shlay et al published an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association (1988) reporting that neither acupuncture nor amitriptyline had effects on pain in HIV-infected patients. However, they failed to perform a factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) or covariance (ANCOVA) reflective of their core research design. Instead, research design problems necessitated the use of a relatively insensitive statistic. Methods: The originally planned study employed a completely crossed 2 × 2 design involving acupuncture and amitriptyline and their controls. Reanalyses performed on the raw data involved ANCOVA and Pearson chi-square tests. Subjects and Setting: The factorial option consisted of 125 HIV-infected men with peripheral neuropathic pain, being treated at health clinics in 10 different cities. Outcome Measures: Outcome measures were pain intensity, global pain relief, attrition, and mortality. Results: In contrast to the originally reported findings, the interactions of amitriptyline and acupuncture over time on pain intensity and pain relief were statistically significant. There were also significant effects for acupuncture and amitriptyline on attrition and mortality, particularly when baseline health was poor. Acupuncture by itself was associated with greater pain relief, whereas the combination of acupuncture and amitriptyline was associated with a reduced level of pain relief. Acupuncture without amitriptyline was associated with substantially reduced attrition and, importantly, decreased mortality. Effects involving acupuncture tended to be magnified in patients in poor health. The combination of acupuncture and amitriptyline resulted in an adverse treatment interaction on mortality, especially in patients in poor health (53% death rate for the combination of acupuncture and amitriptyline vs 11% death rate for acupuncture only). Conclusions: Trials of acupuncture and other treatments should use efficient statistical techniques to assure detection of significant effects. Interactions involving various combinations of acupuncture and amitriptyline, which were undetectable in the original analytical approach, revealed previously undetected beneficial, as well as adverse, effects. © 2010 Elsevier Inc.
• Campesino, M., Belyea, M., & Schwartz, G. (2009). Spirituality and cultural identification among Latino and non-Latino college students. Hispanic Health Care International, 7(2), 72-79.
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  Abstract: The purposes of this study were to examine (a) differences in spiritual perspectives and practices of Latino and non-Latino young adults and (b) the cultural relevance of the Latino Spiritual Perspective Scale (LSPS). Studies indicate that spiritual perspectives are embedded within cultural group norms and vary significantly across ethnic groups. A cross-sectional survey design was used with a convenience sample of 223 Latino and non-Latino university students in the Southwestern United States. The Spiritual Perspective Scale (SPS), the LSPS, the Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale, and a demographic questionnaire were used. Latinos scored significantly higher than non-Latinos in both measures of spiritual perspectives. Self-reported behavioral measures, such as frequency of personal prayer, were also higher among the Latino group. Latino cultural identification was the only significant predictor of LSPS scores. Findings from this study indicate that spirituality among Latinos has meanings specific to the cultural group context. These findings have implications for nursing research involving the conceptualization and measurement of spirituality among multiethnic groups. © 2009 Springer Publishing Company.
• Rock, A. J., Beischel, J., & Schwartz, G. E. (2009). Is there madness in our mediumship methods? A response to roxburgh and roe. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 23(3), 351-357.
• Baldwin, A. L., Wagers, C., & Schwartz, G. E. (2008). Reiki improves heart rate homeostasis in laboratory rats. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 14(4), 417-422.
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  PMID: 18435597;Abstract: Objectives: To determine whether application of Reiki to noise-stressed rats can reduce their heart rates (HRs) and blood pressures. Rationale: In a previous study, we showed that exposure of rats to 90 dB white noise for 15 minutes caused their HRs and blood pressures to significantly increase. Reiki has been shown to significantly decrease HR and blood pressure in a small group of healthy human subjects. However, use of humans in such studies has the disadvantage that experimental interpretations are encumbered by the variable of belief or skepticism regarding Reiki. For that reason, noise-stressed rats were used as an animal model to test the efficacy of Reiki in reducing elevated HR and blood pressure. Design: Three unrestrained, male Sprague-Dawley rats implanted with radiotelemetric transducers were exposed daily for 8 days to a 15-minute white noise regimen (90 dB). For the last 5 days, the rats received 15 minutes of Reiki immediately before the noise and during the noise period. The experiment was repeated on the same animals but using sham Reiki. Setting/location: The animals were housed in a quiet room in University of Arizona Animal Facility. Outcome measures: Mean HRs and blood pressure were determined before Reiki/sham Reiki, during Reiki/sham Reiki, and during the noise in each case. Results: Reiki, but not sham Reiki, significantly reduced HR compared to initial values. With Reiki, there was a high correlation between change in HR and initial HR, suggesting a homeostatic effect. Reiki, but not sham Reiki, significantly reduced the rise in HR produced by exposure of the rats to loud noise. Neither Reiki nor sham Reiki significantly affected blood pressure. Conclusion: Reiki is effective in modulating HR in stressed and unstressed rats, supporting its use as a stress-reducer in humans. © 2008 Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Rock, A. J., Beischel, J., & Schwartz, G. E. (2008). Thematic analysis of research mediums' experiences of discarnate communication. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 22(2), 179-192.
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  Abstract: Medium claim to be able to report accurate and specific information about the deceased loved ones (termed discarnates) of living people (termed sitters) even without any prior knowledge about the sitters or the discarnates and in the complete absence of any sensory feedback. Despite recent experimental research investigating this phenomenon (e.g., Beischel & Schwartz, 2007a), no systematic qualitative studies have been conducted. Consequently, eight research mediums were asked to describe in as much detail as possible how they personally experience receiving communication from discarnate, as part of a comprehensive nine-step subject screening procedure. Thematic analysis revealed seven comprehensive constituent themes that were used to formulate fundamental structural definition.
• Baldwin, A. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Hopp, D. H. (2007). Are investigators aware of environmental noise in animal facilities and that this noise may affect experimental data?. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 46(1), 45-51.
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  PMID: 17203916;Abstract: Control of environmental factors, such as noise, in animal facilities is important to ensure that research animals respond consistently to experimental procedures and that experimental results are not confounded by outside influences. A survey of personnel involved with animal facilities (173 respondents) showed that almost all agreed with this statement. However, 48% thought that one or more environmental factors in their facilities could be stressing the animals, and a majority of respondents reported generation of audible noise from people (72% of respondents), fans (61%), and squeaky carts (56%). The presence of these noises was correlated with the perception of noise as a problem because of its psychologic and physiologic effects on the animals. The amount of time respondents spent in the facilities was strongly correlated with their perception of noise as a problem, with veterinarians spending the most time and perceiving the most problems, and professors and assistant/associate professors spending the least and perceiving the fewest. Therefore, they may lack key knowledge that can affect their research goals. In addition, because faculty are the least aware of noise as a potential problem but are primarily responsible for designing experiments, research involving animals may be confounded by noise as an unknown variable. This effect may lead to unnecessary numbers of animals being required to achieve statistical significance and possibly to erroneous interpretation of results. On the basis of the findings of this survey, we present recommendations for improving the environment, particularly for decreasing the noise level, in animal facilities. Copyright 2007 by the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science.
• Beischel, J., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). Anomalous Information Reception by Research Mediums Demonstrated Using a Novel Triple-Blind Protocol. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 3(1), 23-27.
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  PMID: 17234565;Abstract: Context: Investigating the information reported by mediums is ultimately important in determining the relationship between brain and consciousness in addition to being of deep concern to the public. Objective: This triple-blind study was designed to examine the anomalous reception of information about deceased individuals by research mediums under experimental conditions that eliminate conventional explanations. Participants: Eight University of Arizona students served as sitters: four had experienced the death of a parent; four, a peer. Eight mediums who had previously demonstrated an ability to report accurate information in a laboratory setting performed the readings. Methodology: To optimize potential identifiable differences between readings, each deceased parent was paired with a same-gender deceased peer. Sitters were not present at the readings; an experimenter blind to information about the sitters and deceased served as a proxy sitter. The mediums, blind to the sitters' and deceased's identities, each read two absent sitters and their paired deceased; each pair of sitters was read by two mediums. Each blinded sitter then scored a pair of itemized transcripts (one was the reading intended for him/her; the other, the paired control reading) and chose the reading more applicable to him/her. Results: The findings included significantly higher ratings for intended versus control readings (p = 0.007, effect size = 0.5) and significant reading-choice results (p = 0.01). Conclusions: The results suggest that certain mediums can anomalously receive accurate information about deceased individuals. The study design effectively eliminates conventional mechanisms as well as telepathy as explanations for the information reception, but the results cannot distinguish among alternative paranormal hypotheses, such as survival of consciousness (the continued existence, separate from the body, of an individual's consciousness or personality after physical death) and super-psi (or super-ESP; retrieval of information via a psychic channel or quantum field). © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
• Jain, S., Shapiro, S. L., Swanick, S., Roesch, S. C., Mills, P. J., Bell, I., & E., G. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33(1), 11-21.
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  PMID: 17291166;Abstract: Background: Although mindfulness meditation interventions have recently shown benefits for reducing stress in various populations, little is known about their relative efficacy compared with relaxation interventions. Purpose: This randomized controlled trial examines the effects of a 1-month mindfulness meditation versus somatic relaxation training as compared to a control group in 83 students (M age = 25; 16 men and 67 women) reporting distress. Method: Psychological distress, positive states of mind, distractive and ruminative thoughts and behaviors, and spiritual experience were measured, while controlling for social desirability. Results: Hierarchical linear modeling reveals that both meditation and relaxation groups experienced significant decreases in distress as well as increases in positive mood states over time, compared with the control group (p < .05 in all cases). There were no significant differences between meditation and relaxation on distress and positive mood states over time. Effect sizes for distress were large for both meditation and relaxation (Cohen's d = 1.36 and .91, respectively), whereas the meditation group showed a larger effect size for positive states of mind than relaxation (Cohen's d = .71 and .25, respectively). The meditation group also demonstrated significant pre-post decreases in both distractive and ruminative thoughts/behaviors compared with the control group (p < .04 in all cases; Cohen 's d = .57 for rumination and .25 for distraction for the meditation group), with mediation models suggesting that mindfulness meditation's effects on reducing distress were partially mediated by reducing rumination. No significant effects were found for spiritual experience. Conclusions: The data suggest that compared with a no-treatment control, brief training in mindfulness meditation or somatic relaxation reduces distress and improves positive mood states. However, mindfulness meditation may be specific in its ability to reduce distractive and ruminative thoughts and behaviors, and this ability may provide a unique mechanism by which mindfulness meditation reduces distress. © 2007 by The Society of Behavioral Medicine.
• Kline, J. P., Schwartz, G. E., & Dikman, Z. V. (2007). Interpersonal defensiveness and diminished perceptual acuity for the odor of a putative pheromone: Androstenone. Biological Psychology, 74(3), 405-413.
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  PMID: 17118515;Abstract: This study assessed the relationship of repressive coping and defensiveness to the perception of androstenone, which is a putative human pheromone with relevance to social perception. In Experiment 1, 34 men and 34 women between the ages of 16-28 sniffed pairs of bottles containing silicone (the solvent control) paired with either isoamyl acetate (IAA) or androstenone in an eight trial, two-alternative forced-choice task. Participants chose which hand they believed the odor was in, and rated the odor's intensity and their confidence in their response on a 0-10 scale. Defensiveness was measured with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) L scale. As predicted, defensiveness was associated with decreased perception of androstenone, but not IAA. Decreased detection accuracies, confidence, and intensity ratings for androstenone were associated with high defensiveness. The effect was stronger among women. None of the IAA detection variables correlated with the L scale for either women or men. In Experiment 2, 22 women and 18 men between the ages of 18 and 27 were given 4 concentrations of IAA ranging from subthreshold to suprathreshold, and a blank-blank control. Detection accuracies, confidence ratings, and intensity ratings for IAA were not related to defensiveness for any of the concentrations, for either men or for women. The results are discussed in terms of motives to seek social approval and avoid social disapproval as they may relate to diminished awareness of androstenone. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2007). Early phase research and the process of scientific discovery. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 13(4), 399-.
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  PMID: 17532730;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Beischel, J. (2007). In Response. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 3(4), 355-356.
• Schwartz, G., Palmer, S. M., Klimecki, W., Yu, L., Reinsmoen, N. L., Snyder, L. D., Ganous, T. M., Burch, L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2007). Genetic regulation of rejection and survival following human lung transplantation by the innate immune receptor CD14. American journal of transplantation : official journal of the American Society of Transplantation and the American Society of Transplant Surgeons, 7(3).
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  We have developed the hypothesis that genetic polymorphisms which alter the expression or function of innate immune receptors contribute to the marked interindividual differences in the onset and severity of lung transplant rejection. In this analysis, we considered the effects of a common promotor polymorphism of the lipopolysaccharide receptor CD14 associated with increased transcriptional activity upon the development of posttransplant rejection and graft survival. Genotyping was performed in 226 lung transplant recipients well characterized with regards to clinical outcomes. An earlier onset of acute rejection, bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS) and worse posttransplant graft survival due to greater BOS related deaths was evident in patients with the CD14 -159 TT genotype (TT). The adverse effect upon graft survival of the TT genotype remained significant in a multivariate Cox model (Hazard Ratio 1.65, 95% CI, 1.03-2.64, p-value = 0.04) after adjusting for other important covariates. Furthermore, TT patients have significantly greater sCD14, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma in the peripheral blood implying a heightened state of innate immune activation drives the development of increased post-transplant rejection. Inhibition of innate immune activation through CD14 represents a novel and potentially important therapeutic target to prevent post-transplant rejection and improve outcomes after human lung transplantation.
• Baldwin, A. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). Personal interaction with a Reiki practitioner decreases noise-induced microvascular damage in an animal model. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 12(1), 15-22.
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  PMID: 16494564;Abstract: Objective: To determine whether Reiki, a process of transmission of healing energy, can significantly reduce microvascular leakage caused by exposure to excessive noise using an animal model. Rationale: Reiki is beginning to be used in hospitals to accelerate recovery. Despite many anecdotes describing Reiki's success, few scientific studies are reported and none of those use animals. Animal models have the advantage over human subjects in that they provide well-controlled, easily interpretable experiments. The use of noise is relevant to hospital patients because of the excessive ambient noise in hospitals in the United Kingdom and United States. Loud noise can lead to several nonauditory disorders in humans and animals that impair recovery. In the rat, stress from noise damages the mesenteric microvasculature, leading to leakage of plasma into the surrounding tissue. Design: One group of four rats simultaneously received daily noise and Reiki, while two other groups received "sham" Reiki or noise alone. A fourth group did not receive noise or additional treatment. The experiment was performed three times to test for reproducibility. Outcome Measures: Average number and area of microvascular leaks to fluorescent albumin per unit length of venule. Results: In all three experiments, Reiki significantly reduced the outcome measures compared to the other noise groups (sham Reiki and noise alone) (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Application of Reiki significantly reduces noise-induced microvascular leakage in an animal model. Whether or not these effects are caused by Reiki itself, or the relaxing effect of the Reiki practitioner, this procedure could be useful for minimizing effects of environmental stress on research animals and hospital patients. © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Brooks, A. J., Schwartz, G. E., Reece, K., & Nangle, G. (2006). The effect of Johrei healing on substance abuse recovery: A pilot study. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 12(7), 625-631.
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  PMID: 16970532;Abstract: Objective: The purpose of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of Johrei healing, a form of energy healing, on substance use and psychologic symptoms in a sample of clients receiving substance abuse treatment. Methods: Twenty-one (21) persons in residential substance-abuse treatment participated in a randomized, wait-list control pilot study of Johrei healing. Twelve (12) of the participants received three 20-minute Johrei sessions for 5 weeks in addition to their regular treatment. Results: The results are from the first treatment wave. Individual healing sessions were evaluated pre-post with the Johrei Experience Scale. Participants showed significant decreases in stress/depression and physical pain and increases in positive emotional/spiritual state, energy, and overall well-being after an individual Johrei healing session. The Global Assessment of Individual Need (GAIN), Profile of Mood States (POMS), General Alcoholics Anonymous Tools of Recovery, and 12-Step Participation scales were administered before and after the 5-week intervention to assess change in substance use, psychologic distress, mood, and 12-Step participation. Improvements in depression and trauma symptoms, externalizing behaviors (GAIN), and vigor (POMS) were found for the treatment group. Despite comparable 12-Step attendance the treatment group showed greater improvement than the wait-list control group in the use of 12-Step recovery tools. No difference in substance use was found between the two groups. Conclusions: Variables related to substance use and relapse showed improvement in the treatment group suggesting that Johrei healing shows promise and should be studied with a larger sample, over a longer treatment period, with sham controls. © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Campesino, M., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). Spirituality among Latinas/os: Implications of culture in conceptualization and measurement. Advances in Nursing Science, 29(1), 69-81.
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  PMID: 16495689;PMCID: PMC2758774;Abstract: Despite growing transnational migration between the United States and Latin American countries, culturally relevant conceptualizations of spirituality among Latinas/os remain lacking in healthcare research. Grounded in Latina feminist theology, this article elucidates cultural values that influence spirituality and describes findings from a study using a new questionnaire to explore spirituality among Latinas in Puerto Rico and the US mainland. Results support the saliency of cultural values such as personalismo and familismo as the context for spiritual perspectives, which may function independently of the Catholic Church structure. © 2006 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). Biophoton interaction in biological systems: Evidence of photonic info-energy transfer?. Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering, 6285, IX-XVIII.
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  Abstract: Photons are continuously absorbed and emitted by all living cells. A possible means of releasing energy when an electron changes energy states during a biochemical reaction is via biophoton emission. An example of energy transfer in biological systems is the process of photosynthesis. Biophoton emission has also been proposed as one possible mechanism responsible for intra- and intercellular communication (information transfer) as well as for regulation of biological and biochemical functions within cells and living systems. Measurements by other researchers of this emission have shown it has the properties of coherent light and is measurable from the UV through the near IR. Experimental evidence gathered by various researchers since the 1920's indicates that light plays an important role in certain biological functions and processes. Through a series of experiments we have observed resonance effects between plant parts measured using a highly sensitive, low noise, cooled CCD in total darkness in a light-tight chamber. Dynamical systems theory offers a plausible explanation for resonance effects we have observed. The role of photonic interaction at the systemic level in biological systems has received relatively little attention. Yet, a better understanding of these processes would help us in deciphering the nature and role of light in biological systems.
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). Measurement of bioluminescence and thermal fields from humans: Comparison of three techniques for imaging biofields. Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering, 6285.
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  Abstract: All biological objects emit radiation over a large wavelength range as part of metabolic processes. We hypothesize that biofields surrounding living biological objects can be observed by imaging the photonic and thermal radiation emitted. In this paper we compare three different methods of visualizing biofields we have developed over the last 3-1/2 years: imaging of self-bioluminescence with a highly-sensitive silicon CCD array, dynamic interferometry for measurement of subtle thermal microbursts from biological objects correlated with pulse and respiration, and infrared imaging in the 3-5μm region. Although the self-bioluminescence signal is weak from humans, it can be imaged using 10min exposures with a highly sensitive camera. These speeds do not enable tracking of dynamic changes, but they do enable looking at subtle processes that have not been previously imaged. Dynamic interferometry provides a means of measuring subtle variations in refractive index of air currents by freezing them in time. These air currents are related to bursts of thermal energy emitted by the human body. Although the body is not directly measured, it is possible to track cycles in the range of tenths of seconds to many seconds. Infrared imaging has the advantage of both being fast and not requiring a darkened enclosure. Subtle changes in temperature can be tracked, but ambient environmental conditions need to be controlled to get absolute numbers. Tracking relative changes works the best with this technique. Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages that are outlined in this paper. The technique of choice depends upon the particular application. The rate at which the technology is developing and improving indicates that soon it will be much easier to apply any of these techniques to a wider variety of applications.
• Nelson, L. A., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). Consciousness and the anomalous organization of random events: The role of absorption. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 20(4), 523-544.
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  Abstract: Research has documented that intention can be associated with deviations in an electronic Random Event Generator (REG). The present set of five experiments examined correlates of changes in the REG with two aspects of absorption, perceived depth (depth) and distortions of time perception (time) in a single subject (the first author). In the initial exploratory experiment, the subject collected 59 experimental runs in which various meditative practices were performed, and 42 control runs. Ratings of depth and time were each significantly correlated with magnitude of deviation in the REG. These findings were replicated in a confirmatory experiment with 60 experimental runs that included deliberate "daydream" runs, and 43 control runs. The third experiment manipulated "absorbed/daydream" runs (A) and control (non-absorbed) runs (B) using 20 sets of ABAB runs. The main effect of A versus B was significant. The fourth experiment tested the possibility that the results were due to some electromagnetic effect produced by body movement and consisted of 20 hand motion runs and 20 "absorbed" runs. The results suggested that absorption, and not movement, was the main factor of importance. The fifth experiment was intended to confirm the findings suggested in experiment four. A total of 40 runs were collected at two distances from the REG, and ratings of absorption were taken for all runs. Significant results were found for absorption, not distance. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that states of absorption associated with changes in perception of time and experience of trance-like awareness are associated with replicable alterations in an electromagnetically shielded REG device.
• Rubik, B., Brooks, A. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (2006). In vitro effect of Reiki treatment on bacterial cultures: Role of experimental context and practitioner well-being. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 12(1), 7-13.
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  PMID: 16494563;Abstract: Objective: To measure effects of Reiki treatments on growth of heat-shocked bacteria, and to determine the influence of healing context and practitioner well-being. Methods: Overnight cultures of Escherichia coli K12 in fresh medium were used. Culture samples were paired with controls to minimize any ordering effects. Samples were heat-shocked prior to Reiki treatment, which was performed by Reiki practitioners for up to 15 minutes, with untreated controls. Plate-count assay using an automated colony counter determined the number of viable bacteria. Fourteen Reiki practitioners each completed 3 runs (n = 42 runs) without healing context, and another 2 runs (n = 28 runs) in which they first treated a pain patient for 30 minutes (healing context). Well-being questionnaires were administered to practitioners pre-post all sessions. Results: No overall difference was found between the Reiki and control plates in the nonhealing context. In the healing context, the Reiki treated cultures overall exhibited significantly more bacteria than controls (p < 0.05). Practitioner social (p < 0.013) and emotional well-being (p < 0.021) correlated with Reiki treatment outcome on bacterial cultures in the nonhealing context. Practitioner social (p < 0.031), physical (p < 0.030), and emotional (p < 0.026) well-being correlated with Reiki treatment outcome on the bacterial cultures in the healing context. For practitioners starting with diminished well-being, control counts were likely to be higher than Reiki-treated bacterial counts. For practitioners starting with a higher level of well-being, Reiki counts were likely to be higher than control counts. Conclusions: Reiki improved growth of heat-shocked bacterial cultures in a healing context. The initial level of well-being of the Reiki practitioners correlates with the outcome of Reiki on bacterial culture growth and is key to the results obtained. © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Schloss, E. P. (2006). World Hypotheses and the Evolution of Integrative Medicine: Combining Categorical Diagnoses and Cause-Effect Interventions with Whole Systems Research and Nonvisualizable (Seemingly "Impossible") Healing. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 2(6), 509-514.
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  PMID: 17113491;Abstract: It has been proposed that to understand (1) the evolution of science and medicine, and (2) the integration of conventional, complementary and alternative medicine, it is essential to consider at least eight universal implicit meta-cognitive hypotheses. It has been suggested that these implicit "world" hypotheses can be applied in every discipline of science. The present paper reviews the eight world hypotheses and proposes an additional hypothesis, termed the nonvisualizable or "Nth" world hypothesis (adopting the mathematical concept of "N"; eg, as in N dimensional space). Drawing on contemporary mathematics and quantum physics, we propose that certain theories and data-by their inherent nature-can not be visualized, and therefore may seem "unimaginable" and "impossible" (if not "unbelievable"), even though they are real. Certain seemingly anomalous observations in mind-body and energy medicine, including areas historically labeled as parapsychology or spiritual energy healing, often elicit strongly skeptical and dismissive reactions. We propose that these skeptical and dismissive reactions to purportedly impossible (yet logical) theories and seemingly unbelievable (yet replicable) data can be tempered when the Nth world hypothesis is understood and incorporated. Integrity in evidence-based science and medicine may require that scientists and nonscientists alike develop comfort and humility in accepting the human mind's restricted ability to envision and imagine certain nonvisualizable-yet fundamental and real-concepts and effects, as illustrated in contemporary physics and complementary and alternative medicine. © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
• Buck, T., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). Influence of worldview on health care choices among persons with chronic pain. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(3), 561-568.
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  PMID: 15992245;Abstract: Objective: The aim of this research was to examine relationships between the Pepperian worldviews of people with chronic pain and the health care choices that they make. Design: A convenience sample survey was done. Setting: University Medical Center Pain Clinic, Tucson, Arizona. Subjects: Men and women patients (n = 96) with nonmalignant chronic pain. Outcome measures: World Hypothesis Scale; Health Care Choice List. Results: Findings indicate that the combination of age and formistic worldview are statistically significant predictors of conventional health care choices by participants in this study. Older patients and persons with a predominantly formistic worldview were less likely to use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) as a choice among this sample with chronic nonmalignant pain. Borderline significant associations were noted between persons with formistic or mechanistic worldviews and conventional health care choices, and persons with contextualistic, organismic, or equal scores in two worldview categories and CAM health care choices. Although rates of CAM use did not significantly differ from conventional choices, the prevalence rate for CAM use was high (55.2%) based on national findings. Conclusions: Results of this study provide a link to understanding how underlying philosophies can contribute to the reasons people with chronic pain make health care decisions. Further exploration of worldviews might very well contribute to best practices for consumer health care by engaging in communication styles and belief systems consistent with consumers' personal schemas. © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Burleson, K. O., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). Cardiac torsion and electromagnetic fields: The cardiac bioinformation hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 64(6), 1109-1116.
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  PMID: 15823696;Abstract: Although in physiology the heart is often referred to as a simple piston pump, there are in fact two additional features that are integral to cardiac physiology and function. First, the heart as it contracts in systole, also rotates and produces torsion due to the structure of the myocardium. Second, the heart produces a significant electromagnetic field with each contraction due to the coordinated depolarization of myocytes producing a current flow. Unlike the electrocardiogram, the magnetic field is not limited to volume conduction and extends outside the body. The therapeutic potential for interaction of this cardioelectromagnetic field both within and outside the body is largely unexplored. It is our hypothesis that the heart functions as a generator of bioinformation that is central to normative functioning of body. The source of this bioinformation is based on: (1) vortex blood flow in the left ventricle; (2) a cardiac electromagnetic field and both; (3) heart sounds; and (4) pulse pressure which produce frequency and amplitude information. Thus, there is a multidimensional role for the heart in physiology and biopsychosocial dynamics. Recognition of these cardiac properties may result in significant implications for new therapies for cardiovascular disease based on increasing cardiac energy efficiency (coherence) and bioinformation from the cardioelectromagnetic field. Research studies to test this hypothesis are suggested. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
• Burleson, K. O., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). Energy healing training and heart rate variability [1]. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(3), 391-393.
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  PMID: 15992220;
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). Biophoton interaction in biological systems: Evidence of photonic info-energy transfer?. Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering, 5866, 338-347.
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  Abstract: Photons are continuously absorbed and emitted by all living cells. A possible means of releasing energy when an electron changes energy states during a biochemical reaction is via biophoton emission. An example of energy transfer in biological systems is the process of photosynthesis. Biophoton emission has also been proposed as one possible mechanism responsible for intra- and intercellular communication (information transfer) as well as for regulation of biological and biochemical functions within cells and living systems. Measurements by other researchers of this emission have shown it has the properties of coherent light and is measurable from the UV through the near IR. Experimental evidence gathered by various researchers since the 1920's indicates that light plays an important role in certain biological functions and processes. Through a series of experiments we have observed resonance effects between plant parts measured using a highly sensitive, low noise, cooled CCD in total darkness in a light-tight chamber. Dynamical systems theory offers a plausible explanation for resonance effects we have observed. The role of photonic interaction at the systemic level in biological systems has received relatively little attention. Yet, a better understanding of these processes would help us in deciphering the nature and role of light in biological systems.
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). Imaging "auras" around and between plants: A new application of biophoton imaging. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(6), 951-953.
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  PMID: 16398585;
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). The dynamics of life: Imaging changing patterns of air surrounding material and biological systems with dynamic interferometry. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(2), 233-235.
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  PMID: 15865488;
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). What biophoton images of plants can tell us about biofields and healing. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 19(4), 531-550.
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  Abstract: Monitoring biofields around living organisms can provide information about the system, its state of health and how it is healing. Experimental evidence gathered by various researchers since the 1920s indicates that biophotonic emission (light) plays an important role in certain biological functions and processes. Advances in low-noise, cooled, highly-sensitive CCD (charge-coupled device) cameras essentially able to count photons over thousands to millions of pixels have made it possible to image biophoton emission in completely darkened chambers. Images of biofields can now be recorded and changes can be monitored over time. This paper reviews 2-1/2 years of research studies we have performed to develop biophoton imaging instrumentation for monitoring biofields around living organisms yielding quantitative information about their state of health and how they are healing. All but one of the experiments presented in this paper involves plants as subjects enabling a much larger subject sample and the ability to carefully test instrumentation and methodology. Because it is possible to pinpoint an area in an image and quantify the biophoton emission using the techniques presented in this paper, it is possible to create assays using plants to aid in determining healer efficacy and potentially to determine dosage.
• Leskowitz, E., Hall, H., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). From biology to spirit: The multidimensional model of wound healing [multiple letters]. Seminars in Integrative Medicine, 3(1), 31-32.
• Nelson, L. A., & Schwartz, G. E. (2005). Human biofield and intention detection: Individual differences. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(1), 93-101.
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  PMID: 15750367;Abstract: Objective: To evaluate a battery of biofield awareness tasks that address bioelectromagnetic and consciousness related mechanisms of action, and examine individual differences in integrative biofield awareness (IBA). Methods: Six (6) biofield awareness tasks were designed: 2 involved the experimenter placing his or her hands near the subject, 2 involved intense staring with associated eye movements approximately 3' from the subject, and 2 involved gentle intention with virtually no movement. Each task required a binary response from the subject. There were 10 trials per task for a total of 60 trials; blocks of 6 trials contained one of each task. Subjects were 165 undergraduate psychology students at the University of Arizona Tucson, AZ. Subjects were also assessed on their awareness of their own biofields, and they filled out various questionnaires, including estimates of how well they thought they would do and their openness to spiritual beliefs and experiences. Results: Percent IBA accuracy for the entire sample (n = 165) was 57.7 ±10.3% and was significantly above chance (50%) performance (t = 9.58, p < 0.0000001). Each of the 6 tasks was individually significant. Subjects significantly (t = -2.72; p < 0.007) underestimated their IBA performance below chance (mean, 46.1 ± 18.4%). However, higher estimates predicted higher IBA (r = 0.26, n = 164, p < 0.0008). Measures of subjects' self-awareness of their own biofields, as well as belief in, and experience of, extrasensory perception (ESP) also predicted higher IBA. Conclusions: The findings support claims of energy healers that biofield awareness can be modulated both bioelectromagnetically (locally) and via conscious intent (distally), and that individual differences in biofield awareness are related to self-awareness and sensitivity to others. © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Reece, K., Schwartz, G. E., Brooks, A. J., & Nangle, G. (2005). Positive well-being changes associated with giving and receiving Johrei healing. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(3), 455-457.
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  PMID: 15992229;Abstract: Objectives: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of giving and receiving Johrei, a spiritual energy healing practice, on measures of well-being. Methods: Participants (N = 236) rated 21 items pertaining to feelings plus an overall well-being measure, before and after a Johrei session. Results: Receivers experienced a significantly greater decrease in negative emotional state than givers; however, givers and receivers experienced a comparable increase in positive emotional state and overall well-being. Conclusions: The practice of Johrei and other energy and spiritual healing techniques, may have positive health effects for givers as well as receivers. Future research examining different energy and spiritual healing practices (for example, Reiki and Therapeutic Touch) and using various control groups (for example, treatment-naive subjects instructed to "send loving energy") can explore the generality and mechanisms underlying these apparently robust effects. © Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Creath, K. (2005). Anomalous orbic "spirit" Photographs? A conventional optical explanation. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 19(3), 343-358.
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  Abstract: With the development of reliable and inexpensive digital cameras, numerous individual have reported capturing anomalous round-shaped (orbic) objects in photographs. These seemingly anomalous orbic images (AIOs) have sometimes been interpreted as reflecting "spirits," "angels," "light-beings," "aliens," and/or "UFOs." We decided to determine whether we could (1) replicate capturing AOIs, and (2) investigate their possible mechanism(s). Approximately one thousand photographs were taken with five different digital cameras over multiple sessions under conditions that would purportedly increase the chance of observing AOIs. This included two "spiritual energy healers" performing various diagnostic and treatment procedures in a semi-dark room. More than two hundred photographs contained AOls. Careful examination of the photographs revealed a plausible conventional optical mechanism that could explain most of the AOIs observed. The most common mechanisms involved are (1) stray reflections (often from the flash) from various shiny objects in the environment (mirrors, glass windows, doorknobs, furniture, metal art work) that are then doubly re-reflected off of lens surfaces and (2) diffraction from the flash reflecting off of dust and dirt particles near but not on the lens. Spiritual or other-worldly interpretations of "orbs" in photographs should only be considered under conditions in which all sources of stray reflection and diffraction have been eliminated from the environment.
• Schwartz, K. L., Burleson, K. O., & Schwartz, K. L. (2005). Cardiac torsion and electromagnetic fields: the cardiac bioinformation hypothesis. Medical hypotheses, 64(6).
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  Although in physiology the heart is often referred to as a simple piston pump, there are in fact two additional features that are integral to cardiac physiology and function. First, the heart as it contracts in systole, also rotates and produces torsion due to the structure of the myocardium. Second, the heart produces a significant electromagnetic field with each contraction due to the coordinated depolarization of myocytes producing a current flow. Unlike the electrocardiogram, the magnetic field is not limited to volume conduction and extends outside the body. The therapeutic potential for interaction of this cardioelectromagnetic field both within and outside the body is largely unexplored. It is our hypothesis that the heart functions as a generator of bioinformation that is central to normative functioning of body. The source of this bioinformation is based on: (1) vortex blood flow in the left ventricle; (2) a cardiac electromagnetic field and both; (3) heart sounds; and (4) pulse pressure which produce frequency and amplitude information. Thus, there is a multidimensional role for the heart in physiology and biopsychosocial dynamics. Recognition of these cardiac properties may result in significant implications for new therapies for cardiovascular disease based on increasing cardiac energy efficiency (coherence) and bioinformation from the cardioelectromagnetic field. Research studies to test this hypothesis are suggested.
• Schwartz, K. L., Nelson, L. A., & Schwartz, K. L. (2005). Human biofield and intention detection: individual differences. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 11(1).
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  To evaluate a battery of biofield awareness tasks that address bioelectromagnetic and consciousness related mechanisms of action, and examine individual differences in integrative biofield awareness (IBA).
• Bell, I. R., A., D., Brooks, A. J., Schwartz, G. E., Lewis, S. E., Caspi, O., Cunningham, V., & Baldwin, C. M. (2004). Individual Differences in Response to Randomly Assigned Active Individualized Homeopathic and Placebo Treatment in Fibromyalgia: Implications of a Double-Blinded Optional Crossover Design. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 10(2), 269-283.
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  PMID: 15165408;Abstract: Objective: To assess individual difference characteristics of subgroups of patients with fibromyalgia (FM) patients with respect to the decision to stay in or switch from randomly-assigned verum or placebo treatment during an optional crossover phase of a double-blinded homeopathy study. Design: Double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled, optional crossover clinical trial. Participants: Fifty-three (53) community-recruited patients with FM entered the optional crossover phase. Intervention: Two homeopaths jointly selected an individualized homeopathic remedy for all patients. The pharmacy dispensed either verum LM remedy or indistinguishable placebo in accord with randomized assignment for 4 months and the patient's optional crossover decision for an additional 2 months. Outcome measures: Patients completed a battery of baseline state/trait questionnaires, including mood, childhood neglect and abuse, and trait absorption. They rated global health (whole person-centered) and tender point pain on physical examination (disease-specific) at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. Results: Rates of optional crossover from verum to placebo or placebo to verum were comparable (p = 0.6; 31%, and 41%, respectively). The switch subgroups had greater baseline psychologic issues (emotional neglect in placebo-switch; depression and anger in verum-switch). The verum-stay subgroup scored highest on treatment helpfulness and included all six exceptional responders who fell, prior to crossover, into the top terciles for improvement in both global health and pain. Patients staying in their randomly assigned groups, active or placebo (n = 34), scored significantly higher in trait absorption than did those who switched groups (n = 19). Conclusion: Individual difference factors predict better and poorer responders with FM to specific and nonspecific effects of homeopathic and placebo treatment.
• Bell, I. R., A., D., Lewis, S. E., Brooks, A. J., Schwartz, G. E., & Baldwin, C. M. (2004). Strength of Vital Force in Classical Homeopathy: Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual Correlates Within a Complex Systems Context. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 10(1), 123-131.
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  PMID: 15025886;Abstract: Objective: To explore associations between a global rating for the classical homeopathic construct of vital force and clinician and patient ratings on previously validated bio-psycho-social-spiritual questionnaires. Methods: Sixty-two (62) community-recruited patients with fibromyalgia (FM) were assessed at baseline prior to a clinical trial of individualized homeopathy. Two homeopaths jointly performed case-taking interviews. A conventional medical provider independently evaluated patients with a standardized history and physical examination. Homeopaths rated each patient's vital force (five-point Likert scale, with 1 = very weak to 5 = very strong). Homeopaths and the conventional medical provider rated their Clinical Global Impression (CGI) of the severity of illness (1 = normal; 7 = among the most extremely ill). Patients completed self-rating scales on pain, global health, mood, quality of life, coping style, health locus of control, multidimensional well-being, spirituality, sense of coherence, positive states of mind, and social desirability. Results: Greater vital force ratings (mean 2.9 standard deviation [SD] 0.6) correlated moderately (p ≤ 0.005) with less severe CGI illness ratings by the homeopaths (r = -0.59), decreased patient-rated mental confusion (r = -0.43), higher vigor (r = 0.38), and greater positive states of mind (r = 0.36). Vital force also showed correlations (p < 0.05) with lower CGI ratings by the conventional medical provider (r = -0.32), better self-rated quality of life (r = 0.33), lesser fatigue (r = -0.31), better global health (r = 0.29), greater sense of coherence (r = 0.28), powerful-others health locus of control (r = 0.27), increased emotional well-being (r = 0.27), and higher social desirability (r = 0.27), but not with age, pain, or illness duration. Conclusion: Homeopathic vital force ratings reflect better perceived mental function, energy, and positive dimensions of the individual, beyond absence of disease.
• Bell, I. R., A., D., Lewis, S. E., Schwartz, G. E., Brooks, A. J., Scott, A., & Baldwin, C. M. (2004). EEG alpha sensitization in individualized homeopathic treatment of fibromyalgia. International Journal of Neuroscience, 114(9), 1195-1220.
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  PMID: 15370183;Abstract: Fibromyalgia (FM) patients show evidence of sensitizability in pain pathways and electroencephalographic (EEG) alterations. One proposed mechanism for the claimed effects of homeopathy, a form of complementary medicine used for FM, is time-dependent sensitization (TDS, progressive amplification) of host responses. This study examined possible sensitization-related changes in EEG relative alpha magnitude during a clinical trial of homeopathy in FM. A 4-month randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind trial of daily orally administered individualized homeopathy in physician-confirmed FM, with an additional 2-month optional crossover phase, included three laboratory sessions, at baseline, 3 and 6 months (N = 48, age 49.2 ±9.8 years, 94% women). Nineteen leads of EEC relative alpha magnitude at rest and during olfactory administration of treatment and control solutions were evaluated in each session. After 3 months, the active treatment group significantly increased, while the placebo group decreased, in global alpha-1 and alpha-2 during bottle sniffs over sessions. At 6 months, the subset of active patients who stayed on active continued to increase, while the active-switch sub-group reversed direction in alpha magnitude. Groups did not differ in resting alpha. Consistent with the TDS hypothesis, sniff alpha-1 and alpha-2 increases at 6 months versus baseline correlated with total amount of time on active remedy over all subjects (r = 0.45, p = .003), not with dose changes or clinical outcomes in the active group. The findings suggest initiation of TDS in relative EEC alpha magnitude by daily oral administration of active homeopathic medicines versus placebo, with laboratory elicitation by temporolimbic olfactory stimulation or sniffing.
• Bell, I. R., A., D., Schwartz, G. E., Lewis, S. E., Caspi, O., Scott, A., Brooks, A. J., & Baldwin, C. M. (2004). Electroencephalographic Cordance Patterns Distinguish Exceptional Clinical Responders with Fibromyalgia to Individualized Homeopathic Medicines. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 10(2), 285-299.
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  PMID: 15165409;Abstract: Objectives: To characterize initial central nervous system responses to olfactory administration of homeopathic remedies as biomarkers for subsequently exceptional, simillimum-like clinical outcomes at a systemic level (i.e., both locally and globally). Design: Double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Setting: A private homeopathic clinic in Phoenix, AZ, and a university laboratory in Tucson, AZ. Patients: Sixty-two (62) persons with physician-confirmed fibromyalgia (FM) (mean age, 49 years; 94% women) enrolled; 53 completed the 3-month assessment visit. Exceptional responders (n = 6, 23% of active treatment group; none on placebo) were those with improvements in the top one-third for both tender point pain and global health ratings after 3 months. Intervention: Patients took daily oral doses of treatment solution in LM (1/50,000 dilution) potency (active group received individualized remedy; placebo group received plain solvent). Dependent measures: Baseline and 3-month difference scores for initial prefrontal electroencephalographic alpha frequency cordance (EEG-C, a correlate of functional brain activity) during 16 pairs of randomized, double-blinded bottle sniffs (treatment minus control solutions). Results: Exceptional responders versus other patients exhibited significantly more negative initial EEG-C difference scores at prefrontal sites. Right prefrontal cordance findings correlated with subsequently reduced pain (r = 0.85, p = 0.03), better global health (r = -0.73, p = 0.10), and trait absorption (genetically determined ability to focus attention selectively and fully) (r = 0.91, p = 0.012). Conclusions: These observations suggest prefrontal EEG-C as an early biomarker of individualized homeopathic medicine effects in patients with FM who later exhibit exceptional outcomes. Prefrontal cortex controls executive function; including ability to redirect attention. Interactions between executive function, absorption, and the simillimum remedy could facilitate exceptional responses.
• Bell, I. R., Lewis, I., Brooks, A. J., Schwartz, G. E., Lewis, S. E., Walsh, B. T., & Baldwin, C. M. (2004). Improved clinical status in fibromyalgia patients treated with individualized homeopathic remedies versus placebo. Rheumatology, 43(5), 577-582.
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  PMID: 14734789;Abstract: Objective. To assess the efficacy of individualized classical homeopathy in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Methods. This study was a double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, placebo-controlled trial of homeopathy. Community-recruited persons (N = 62) with physician-confirmed fibromyalgia (mean age 49 yr, S.D. 10 yr, 94% women) were treated in a homeopathic private practice setting. Participants were randomized to receive oral daily liquid LM (1/50 000) potencies with an individually chosen homeopathic remedy or an indistinguishable placebo. Homeopathic visits involved joint interviews and concurrence on remedy selection by two experienced homeopaths, at baseline, 2 months and 4 months (prior to a subsequent optional crossover phase of the study which is reported elsewhere). Tender point count and tender point pain on examination by a medical assessor uninvolved in providing care, self-rating scales on fibromyalgia-related quality of life, pain, mood and global health at baseline and 3 months, were the primary clinical outcome measures for this report. Results. Fifty-three people completed the treatment protocol. Participants on active treatment showed significantly greater improvements in tender point count and tender point pain, quality of life, global health and a trend toward less depression compared with those on placebo. Conclusions. This study replicates and extends a previous 1-month placebo-controlled crossover study in fibromyalgia that pre-screened for only one homeopathic remedy. Using a broad selection of remedies and the flexible LM dose (1/50 000 dilution factor) series, the present study demonstrated that individualized homeopathy is significantly better than placebo in lessening tender point pain and improving the quality of life and global health of persons with fibromyalgia. © British Society for Rheumatology 2004; all rights reserved.
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2004). Biophoton Images of Plants: Revealing the Light Within. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 10(1), 23-26.
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  PMID: 15025875;
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2004). Dynamic visible interferometric measurement of thermal fields around living biological objects. Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering, 5531, 24-31.
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  Abstract: Dynamic interferometry is a highly sensitive means of obtaining phase information that can determine phase at rates of a few measurements per second. The sensitivity of these phase-measurement instruments is on the order of thousandths of a wavelength at visible wavelengths enabling the measurement of small temperature changes and thermal fields surrounding living biological objects. Temperature differences are clearly noticeable using a visible wavelength source because of subtle changes in the refractive index of air due to thermal variations between an object and the ambient room temperature. Living objects can also easily be measured over a period of time to monitor changes as a function of time. This technique has many promising applications in biological and medical sciences for studying thermal fields around living objects. In this paper we compare differences in thermal fields measured with dynamic phase-measuring interferometry surrounding room temperature and body temperature inanimate objects as well as living biological objects at data rates of many measurements per second.
• Creath, K., & Schwartz, G. E. (2004). Measuring Effects of Music, Noise, and Healing Energy Using a Seed Germination Bioassay. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 10(1), 113-122.
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  PMID: 15025885;Abstract: Objective: To measure biologic effects of music, noise, and healing energy without human preferences or placebo effects using seed germination as an objective biomarker. Methods: A series of five experiments were performed utilizing okra and zucchini seeds germinated in acoustically shielded, thermally insulated, dark, humid growth chambers. Conditions compared were an untreated control, musical sound, pink noise, and healing energy. Healing energy was administered for 15-20 minutes every 12 hours with the intention that the treated seeds would germinate faster than the untreated seeds. The objective marker was the number of seeds sprouted out of groups of 25 seeds counted at 12-hour intervals over a 72-hour growing period. Temperature and relative humidity were monitored every 15 minutes inside the seed germination containers. A total of 14 trials were run testing a total of 4600 seeds. Results: Musical sound had a highly statistically significant effect on the number of seeds sprouted compared to the untreated control over all five experiments for the main condition (p < 0.002) and over time (p < 0.000002). This effect was independent of temperature, seed type, position in room, specific petri dish, and person doing the scoring. Musical sound had a significant effect compared to noise and an untreated control as a function of time (p < 0.03) while there was no significant difference between seeds exposed to noise and an untreated control. Healing energy also had a significant effect compared to an untreated control (main condition, p < 0.0006) and over time (p < 0.0001) with a magnitude of effect comparable to that of musical sound. Conclusion: This study suggests that sound vibrations (music and noise) as well as biofields (bioelectromagnetic and healing intention) both directly affect living biologic systems, and that a seed germination bioassay has the sensitivity to enable detection of effects caused by various applied energetic conditions.
• Hall, H., & Schwartz, G. E. (2004). Rapid wound healing: A Sufi perspective. Seminars in Integrative Medicine, 2(3), 116-123.
• Schwartz, G. E., Swanick, S., Sibert, W., A., D., Lewis, S. E., Nelson, L., Jain, S., Mallory, L., Foust, L., Moore, K., Tussing, D., & Bell, I. R. (2004). Biofield Detection: Role of Bioenergy Awareness Training and Individual Differences in Absorption. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 10(1), 167-169.
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  PMID: 15025891;Abstract: Objective: To measure health care providers' capacity to detect biofields before and after bioenergy awareness training in relation to individual differences in the personality trait of absorption. Methods: Twenty-seven (27) physicians, psychologists, and nurses participated in a 5-day intensive bioenergy healing training course with Rev. Rosalyn Bruyere. The course was part of the Associate Fellows Program in the Program in Integrative Medicine at the University of Arizona. Blindfolded participants received a 24-trial hand biofield detection test (HBDT) pretraining and post-training. The experimenter placed his or her dominant hand a few inches above the participant's left or right hand for 30-second trials. After each trial, the participant guessed which hand was being tested. Blocks contained two right- and two left-hand trials in different orders. Participants filled out Tellegen's Absorption Scale, a measure of the capacity to focus attention in tasks. Results: Percent HBDT accuracy for the entire sample was 50.8% (standard deviation [SD] = 12.24) at pretraining (50% is chance); accuracy increased to 55.5% (SD = 12.38) at post-training (t = 2.08, p < 0.05). Pretraining absorption (mean = 23.9; SD = 5.52) was significantly correlated with degree of detection accuracy increase (r = 0.42, n = 22, p < 0.05). High absorption (mean = 28.2 n = 11) participants increased to 58.3% compared to 52.7% for low absorption (mean = 19.2 n = 11) participants. Conclusion: The findings support claims of energy healers that (1) training can improve bioenergy awareness, and (2) there are substantial individual differences in response to training.
• Schwartz, K. L., Creath, K., & Schwartz, K. L. (2004). Biophoton images of plants: revealing the light within. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 10(1).
• Schwartz, K. L., Creath, K., & Schwartz, K. L. (2004). Measuring effects of music, noise, and healing energy using a seed germination bioassay. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 10(1).
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  To measure biologic effects of music, noise, and healing energy without human preferences or placebo effects using seed germination as an objective biomarker.
• Bell, I. R., A., D., Brooks, A. J., Lewis, S. E., & Schwartz, G. E. (2003). Gas discharge visualization evaluation of ultramolecular doses of homeopathic medicines under blinded, controlled conditions. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 9(1), 25-38.
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  PMID: 12676033;Abstract: Objectives: To determine the feasibility of using a computerized biophysical method, gas discharge visualization (GDV), to differentiate ultramolecular doses of homeopathic remedies from solvent controls and from each other. Design: Blinded, randomized assessment of four split samples each of 30c potencies of three homeopathic remedies from different kingdoms, for example, Natrum muriaticum (mineral), Pulsatilla (plant), and Lachesis (animal), dissolved in a 20% alcohol-water solvent versus two different control solutions (that is, solvent with untreated lactose/sucrose pellets and unsuccussed solvent alone). Procedures: GDV measurements, involving application of a brief electrical impulse at four different voltage levels, were performed over 10 successive images on each of 10 drops from each bottle (total 400 images per test solution per voltage). The dependent variables were the quantified image characteristics of the liquid drops (form coefficient, area, and brightness) from the resultant burst of electron-ion emission and optical radiation in the visual and ultraviolet ranges. Results: The procedure generated measurable images at the two highest voltage levels. At 17 kV, the remedies exhibited overall lower image parameter values compared with solvents (significant for Pulsatilla and Lachesis), as well as differences from solvents in fluctuations over repeated images (exposures to the same voltage). At 24 kV, other patterns emerged, with individual remedies showing higher or lower image parameters compared with other remedies and the solvent controls. Conclusions: GDV technology may provide an electromagnetic probe into the properties of homeopathic remedies as distinguished from solvent controls. However, the present findings also highlight the need for additional research to evaluate factors that may affect reproducibility of results.
• Hintz, K. J., Yount, G. L., Kadar, I., Schwartz, G., Hammerschlag, R., & Lin, S. (2003). Bioenergy definitions and research guidelines. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 9(3 SUPPL.), A13-A30.
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  PMID: 12776462;Abstract: A model for the functional and observable interrelation among the various components in a physical bioenergy system is presented. The analogy is made between electric circuits and electromagnetic interactions, and contact and noncontact bioenergy transfer. It is postulated that there exists some form of bioenergy that has the capacity to do work and that this energy behaves in a manner similar to electricity in that the physical concepts of electromotive force, current, and impedance have their equivalents in bioenergy. It is further postulated that these analogous components are related by an equivalent to Ohm's and other physical laws of electricity. This is extended to a conjecture that bioenergy healing is the transfer of information from a practitioner to a healee. Research guidelines for bioenergy measurements are presented, including basic measurement practices for electrical and electromagnetic systems through direct measurements and the use of indirect measurement experiments for detecting these or other forms of bioenergy transfer. The research guidelines are divided into 2 sections: those involving direct measurement of the physical electrical properties of a practitioner, in particular the difficulties associated with electrical measurements of extremely low-level signals outside of a Faraday shield or electromagnetic measurements outside of a radio frequency anechoic chamber; and those for conducting experiments in which the effects of bioenergy are being investigated on the healee or other target system without direct measurements of the means for bioenergy transfer.
• Schwartz, G. E., Nelson, L. A., & Russek, L. G. (2003). Purported anomalous perception in a highly skilled individual: Observations, interpretations, compassion. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 17(2), 301-316.
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  Abstract: The purported ability of a seventeen-year-old female, investigated for seven years in China, to perceive information without using visual and kinesthetic cues, was studied. In one experiment, five letters from A to Z and five numbers from 0 to 100 were randomly selected by computer, written on small sheets of paper and individually folded and placed in a sealed envelope. The folded stimuli were removed one by one and placed into a cloth bag that was opaque to light; the bag was tied below the participant's right elbow. The participant was accurate for all ten trials. In a second experiment, three video cameras carefully monitored the participant's hand movements; in addition, both ends of the folded papers were sealed with clear tape. Careful analysis of the clear tape and the videotapes revealed evidence of practiced deception. Data were also collected from a 25-year-old graduate student and a 7-year-old child not employing a cloth bag. Their data suggest that deception is not necessarily involved in all cases of purported anomalous perception.
• Schwartz, K. L., Bell, I. R., Lewis, D. A., Brooks, A. J., Lewis, S. E., & Schwartz, K. L. (2003). Gas discharge visualization evaluation of ultramolecular doses of homeopathic medicines under blinded, controlled conditions. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 9(1).
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  To determine the feasibility of using a computerized biophysical method, gas discharge visualization (GDV), to differentiate ultramolecular doses of homeopathic remedies from solvent controls and from each other.
• Schwartz, K. L., Shapiro, S. L., Bootzin, R. R., Figueredo, A. J., Lopez, A. M., & Schwartz, K. L. (2003). The efficacy of mindfulness-based stress reduction in the treatment of sleep disturbance in women with breast cancer: an exploratory study. Journal of psychosomatic research, 54(1).
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  The diagnosis of breast cancer, the most common type of cancer among American women, elicits greater distress than any other diagnosis regardless of prognosis. Therefore, the present study examined the efficacy of a stress reduction intervention for women with breast cancer.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (2002). Translating a nonlinear systems theory model for homeopathy into empirical tests. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 8(3), 58-66.
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  PMID: 12017501;Abstract: Various investigators have proposed that nonlinear systems theory, notably chaos and complexity theory, provides a heuristically useful model for conceptualizing the way in which complementary and alternative medicine therapies, which purport to modify subtle energies, effect change throughout the individual as a whole. In this paper we apply this theory to classical homeopathy and outline an empirical approach for testing the resultant hypotheses. Such research may advance understanding of the mechanisms of homeopathic remedy effects and provide a direction for homeopathic research that expands the previous emphasis on clinical trials and the remedies themselves. In refocusing attention on the dynamics of the patient as a nonlinear complex system, the proposed research program is consistent with the homeopathic emphasis on the individual rather than the disease. This approach may have additional applications that can elucidate similar effects of other energy medicine modalities (eg, acupuncture) on the healing process of the person as a unified whole.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., Schwartz, G. E., & Davidson, J. R. (2002). Homeopathic constitutional type questionnaire correlates of conventional psychological and physical health scales: Individual difference characteristics of young adults. Homeopathy, 91(2), 63-74.
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  PMID: 12371459;Abstract: This study examined associations between scores for 19 different remedies on the constitutional type questionnaire (CTQ) and scores on standardized psychological and medical trait and state scales from health psychology research. Subjects were 104 young adult American college students (mean age 20 years; 67% female). Scales included the chemical intolerance index (CII) for environmental sensitivity, the NEO personality inventory, Marlowe-Crowne social desirability (MCSD) Scale for defensiveness, Harvard parental caring scale (HPCS) for perceived mother and father traits, Profile of Mood State (POMS) scale, Pennebaker symptom checklist (PSC), and a 3-item global health rating scale. The majority of CTQ constitutional type scores correlated significantly with greater NEO neuroticism, lower MCSD defensiveness, and greater psychological distress on the POMS subscales. NEO Extraversion and Openness subscales correlated with specific CTQ scores in directions consistent with clinical remedy pictures. CTQ Carcinosin differed from other remedies, showing no significant correlations with other scales. As hypothesized (a) persons high on CTQ scores for Carcinosin and low in parental caring (HPCS) had the highest symptom score; (b) those high on CTQ scores for Sulphur and low on HPCS had the poorest global health ratings; (c) individuals high on four different CTQ type scores (Carcinosin, Lachesis, Nux vomica, Sulphur) and high on environmental sensitivity (CII) exhibited the highest symptom scores. Taken together, the data offer additional validation of the CTQ and provide a foundation for studying interactions of constitutional type with both psychosocial and physicochemical environmental factors in homeopathic provers and patients.
• Bell, I. R., Caspi, O., E., G., Grant, K. L., Gaudet, T. W., Rychener, D., Maizes, V., & Weil, A. (2002). Integrative medicine and systemic outcomes research: Issues in the emergence of a new model for primary health care. Archives of Internal Medicine, 162(2), 133-140.
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  PMID: 11802746;Abstract: Clinicians and researchers are increasingly using the term integrative medicine to refer to the merging of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) with conventional biomedicine. However, combination medicine (CAM added to conventional) is not integrative. Integrative medicine represents a higher-order system of systems of care that emphasizes wellness and healing of the entire person (bio-psycho-socio-spiritual dimensions) as primary goals, drawing on both conventional and CAM approaches in the context of a supportive and effective physician-patient relationship. Using the context of integrative medicine, this article outlines the relevance of complex systems theory as an approach to health outcomes research. In this view, health is an emergent property of the person as a complex living system. Within this conceptualization, the whole may exhibit properties that its separate parts do not possess. Thus, unlike biomedical research that typically examines parts of health care and parts of the individual, one at a time, but not the complete system, integrative outcomes research advocates the study of the whole. The whole system includes the patient-provider relationship, multiple conventional and CAM treatments, and the philosophical context of care as the intervention. The systemic outcomes encompass the simultaneous, interactive changes within the whole person.
• Feldman, J. M., Lehrer, P. M., Hochron, S. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (2002). Defensiveness and individual response stereotypy in asthma. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(2), 294-301.
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  PMID: 11914446;PMCID: PMC2958692;Abstract: Objective: Previous literature has shown that the psychological trait of defensiveness is related to elevated sympathetic reactivity to stress and to several cardiac risk factors. The aim of this study was to examine whether these previous findings on defensiveness extend to an asthmatic population. Methods: Defensiveness was measured by the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale using a quartile split: high (upper 25%) and low (bottom 75%). Twenty-two defensive and 66 nondefensive participants with asthma were exposed to laboratory tasks (initial baseline rest period, reaction time task, and a shop accident film). Results: During the tasks there was evidence of lower skin conductance levels and greater respiratory sinus arrhythmia amplitudes among defensive patients with asthma. After exposure to the tasks, defensive patients with asthma showed a decline on spirometry test measures compared with nondefensive asthmatic patients, who displayed an increase. Conclusions: These data confirm individual response stereotypy and suggest that defensiveness may be characterized by sympathetic hypoarousal and parasympathetic hyperarousal among patients with asthma. Future studies are needed to determine whether defensiveness is a risk factor for stress-induced bronchoconstriction.
• Ferguson, J. M., Mendels, J., & Schwartz, G. E. (2002). Effects of reboxetine on Hamilton Depression Rating Scale factors from randomized, placebo-controlled trials in major depression. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17(2), 45-51.
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  PMID: 11890185;Abstract: Reboxetine is the first selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI) approved for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). Although reboxetine has demonstrated efficacy for the treatment of depression, its effects on specific depressive symptoms have not been reported. We evaluated the effects of reboxetine on four Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) factors: psychomotor retardation, anxiety, cognitive disturbance and insomnia. Data were obtained from four short-term (4-8-week), randomized, placebo-controlled trials of reboxetine for the treatment of MDD. For each study, mean changes in HAM-D symptom factor scores from randomization to the study endpoint were compared between reboxetine and placebo. In addition, data from all four studies were pooled to determine the proportions of patients who either improved or worsened with treatment were compared between placebo (n = 353) and reboxetine (n = 350) treatment groups. Compared to placebo, reboxetine significantly improved psychomotor retardation in all four trials. Cognitive disturbance and anxiety were improved in three of four trials, and insomnia was improved in one trial with a positive trend in the second trial. Reboxetine, a selective NRI, improves symptoms of psychomotor retardation, anxiety and cognitive disturbance during treatment of MDD. © 2002 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2002). Absorption of gamma radiation as a possible mechanism for bigu: Theory and data. Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society, 22(5 SPEC.), 371-373.
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  Abstract: The qigong state of bigu is believed to be supported by the absorption of qi from the universe. Gamma radiation is ubiquitous in the cosmos and, according to some, may be a possible source of energy for cellular functioning. When the concept of energy is integrated with the concept of dynamical systems, the logic leads to the theory - termed systemic memory - that predicts all systems, from the micro to macro, store information and energy to various degrees. New research indicates that the human body absorbs gamma radiation from the environment and emits high-frequency X rays. There are substantial individual differences in these effects that appear to be related, in part, to the psychological state of the person. Future research can determine if bigu is associated with increased absorption of gamma radiation and/or decreased emission of high frequency X rays. The hypothesis that qi can be viewed as quality information is proposed.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., & E., G. (2001). Sensitization studies in chemically intolerant individuals: Implications for individual difference research. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 933, 38-47.
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  PMID: 12000034;Abstract: Chemical intolerance (CI) is an individual difference trait in which persons report feeling ill in multiple physiological systems from low levels of a wide range of chemically unrelated environmental substances. This paper discusses the neural sensitization model for progressive host amplification of polysymptomatic responses elicited by chemical exposures following an initiating event. The sensitization model accommodates hypotheses for initiating and eliciting CI in human populations that involve both environmental chemicals and physical or psychological stressors. Recent studies in this laboratory have demonstrated sensitization in individuals with CI over repeated sessions for dependent variables such as electroencephalographic (EEG) activity and diastolic blood pressure. Psychological distress variables alone do not explain these findings. Individuals with CI and/or vulnerability to sensitization share specific characteristics, for example, female gender, certain genetic background (offspring of alcohol-preferring parents), and personal preference for high sugar/carbohydrate intake. Overall, the data suggest that the 15-30% of the general population who report heightened CI are highly sensitizable. Sensitizability may serve an adaptive, sentinel function in threatening environments with poor signal-to-noise ratios. However, as sensitization gradually shifts operating set points of physiological systems out of the normal range in response to allostatic load, this process may contribute to the development of chronic, polysymptomatic health conditions such as multiple chemical sensitivity and/or fibromyalgia. Individual response specificity and stereotypy rather than toxicant properties may determine which types of central, autonomic, and/or peripheral nervous system dysfunctions manifest at subclinical and clinical levels.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., Stoltz, E., Walsh, B. T., & E., G. (2001). Concomitant environmental chemical intolerance modifies the neurobehavioral presentation of women with fibromyalgia. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, 9(1-2), 3-19.
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  Abstract: Background: This study compared personality, dietary, and psychophysiological characteristics of 3 groups of women: fibromyalgia (FM) with illness from low levels of environmental chemicals (chemical intolerance, CI), FM alone without CI, and normal controls. CI may be a marker for enhanced central nervous system response amplification (sensitization) in limbic and mesolimbic pathways, which play a role in hedonic responses to food and drugs and in pain. Method: Fibromyalgic women with (FM/CI, n = 11) and without CI (FM, n = 10) and normals (NORM, n = 10) participated in the study. Measures included psychological trait questionnaires, a food frequency questionnaire, a taste test for hedonic and sweetness ratings of different sucrose concentrations, pain self-ratings, and resting spectral electroencephalographic alpha over midline sites, averaged over four separate days. Results: FM with CI had the highest scores on the Harm Avoidance dimension of the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire, Carbohydrate Addicts Test, Limbic Symptom sensory and behavior subscales, and SCL-90-R somatization and obsessiveness subscales. FM groups both had the highest mean pain ratings for 21 tender point sites. Groups did not differ for macronutrient intake or for sweetness and hedonic ratings for sucrose. The combined FM groups had greater EEG alpha activity towards posterior midline sites than did normals. Conclusion: The pattern of findings may reflect impaired serotonergic function and/or elevated dopaminergic receptor activation by endogenous and/or exogenous agents. The data could have implications for pharmacological and dietary interventions in different subsets of FM patients. © 2001 by The Haworth Press. Inc. All rights reserved.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., Stoltz, E., Walsh, B. T., & Schwartz, G. E. (2001). EEG beta 1 oscillation and sucrose sensitization in fibromyalgia with chemical intolerance. International Journal of Neuroscience, 108(1-2), 31-42.
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  PMID: 11328700;Abstract: Patients with fibromyalgia (FM) have diffuse musculoskeletal pain; half report concomitant intolerance for low levels of environmental chemicals (CI). Previous investigators have hypothesized that the chronic pain and chemical intolerance reflect sensitization of different central nervous system limbic and/or mesolimbic reward pathways. We evaluated electroencephalographic (EEG) beta activity and blood glucose responses of FM patients with and without CI and normals during three repeated sucrose ingestion sessions and during a final, water-only session (testing for conditioning). The FM with CI exhibited oscillation (reversal in direction of change from session to session) at rest and then sensitization (progressive amplification) of EEG beta 1 over time across the 3 sucrose sessions versus controls. FM with CI showed sensitization of blood glucose over the 3 sucrose sessions, which, like the EEG findings, reverted toward baseline in the final water-only session. The data suggest that the subset of FM patients with CI have increased susceptibility to oscillation and physiological sensitization without conditioning, perhaps contributing to fluctuations in their chronic course.
• Kline, J. P., Knapp-Kline, K., Schwartz, G. E., & G., L. (2001). Anterior asymmetry, defensiveness, and perceptions of parental caring. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(7), 1135-1145.
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  Abstract: Perceived parental caring and relative left frontal activation (LFA) of the electroencephalogram (EEG) have been associated with salutary mental and physical health benefits. Defensiveness on the other hand, is associated with decreased self-reported and other-reported psychopathology, and physical health liabilities. Though previous work has delineated relations among some of these factors (e.g. LFA and defensiveness, LFA and immune function, parental caring and defensiveness), the interrelationship of defensiveness, LFA, and parental caring is unknown. The present study examined relationships among defensiveness, perceived parental caring, and resting anterior asymmetry of the electroencephalogram. Defensiveness and perceived maternal caring contributed significant unique variance to the prediction of relative left lateral frontal activation. Paternal caring did not correlate with left frontal activation. The results are discussed as they relate to the relevance of these factors for physical and mental health. © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (2001). Parental love and health: Russek & Schwartz (1997a). Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 17(1), 27-31.
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  PMID: 11270057;
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (2001). Sensitization studies in chemically intolerant individuals: implications for individual difference research. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 933.
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  Chemical intolerance (CI) is an individual difference trait in which persons report feeling ill in multiple physiological systems from low levels of a wide range of chemically unrelated environmental substances. This paper discusses the neural sensitization model for progressive host amplification of polysymptomatic responses elicited by chemical exposures following an initiating event. The sensitization model accommodates hypotheses for initiating and eliciting CI in human populations that involve both environmental chemicals and physical or psychological stressors. Recent studies in this laboratory have demonstrated sensitization in individuals with CI over repeated sessions for dependent variables such as electroencephalographic (EEG) activity and diastolic blood pressure. Psychological distress variables alone do not explain these findings. Individuals with CI and/or vulnerability to sensitization share specific characteristics, for example, female gender, certain genetic background (offspring of alcohol-preferring parents), and personal preference for high sugar/ carbohydrate intake. Overall, the data suggest that the 15-30% of the general population who report heightened CI are highly sensitizable. Sensitizability may serve an adaptive, sentinel function in threatening environments with poor signal-to-noise ratios. However, as sensitization gradually shifts operating set points of physiological systems out of the normal range in response to allostatic load, this process may contribute to the development of chronic, polysymptomatic health conditions such as multiple chemical sensitivity and/or fibromyalgia. Individual response specificity and stereotypy rather than toxicant properties may determine which types of central, autonomic, and/or peripheral nervous system dysfunctions manifest at subclinical and clinical levels.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., Stoltz, E., Walsh, B. T., & Schwartz, G. E. (2001). EEG beta 1 oscillation and sucrose sensitization in fibromyalgia with chemical intolerance. The International journal of neuroscience, 108(1-2).
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  Patients with fibromyalgia (FM) have diffuse musculoskeletal pain; half report concomitant intolerance for low levels of environmental chemicals (CI). Previous investigators have hypothesized that the chronic pain and chemical intolerance reflect sensitization of different central nervous system limbic and/or mesolimbic reward pathways. We evaluated electroencephalographic (EEG) beta activity and blood glucose responses of FM patients with and without CI and normals during three repeated sucrose ingestion sessions and during a final, water-only session (testing for conditioning). The FM with CI exhibited oscillation (reversal in direction of change from session to session) at rest and then sensitization (progressive amplification) of EEG beta 1 over time across the 3 sucrose sessions versus controls. FM with CI showed sensitization of blood glucose over the 3 sucrose sessions, which, like the EEG findings, reverted toward baseline in the final water-only session. The data suggest that the subset of FM patients with CI have increased susceptibility to oscillation and physiological sensitization without conditioning, perhaps contributing to fluctuations in their chronic course.
• Barrett, L. F., Lane, R. D., Sechrest, L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2000). Sex differences in emotional awareness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(9), 1027-1035.
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  Abstract: The present study examined sex differences in the complexity and differentiation of people's representations of emotional experience. Female participants from seven different samples, ranging in age, scholastic performance, socioeconomic status, and culture, scored higher on a performance test of emotional awareness than did male participants. Women consistently displayed more complexity and differentiation in their articulations of emotional experiences than did men, even when the effect of verbal intelligence was controlled. Together, the findings suggest that a sex difference in display of emotional awareness is a stable, highly generalizable effect. Implications of these findings are presented.
• Kline, J. P., Blackhart, G. C., Woodward, K. M., Williams, S. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (2000). Anterior electroencephalographic asymmetry changes in elderly women in response to a pleasant and an unpleasant odor. Biological Psychology, 52(3), 241-250.
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  PMID: 10725566;Abstract: Greater left than right frontal EEG activation has been associated with increased positive and/or decreased negative affect, whereas greater right than left frontal activation has been associated with the opposite pattern. Substantial research has documented the trait properties of asymmetry, as well as responses to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli. The present study examined changes in anterior alpha asymmetries in response to pleasant (vanilla), unpleasant (valerian), and neutral (water) odors. As predicted, vanilla produced relative left frontal activation compared to valerian and water. Frontal asymmetry did not differ in response to valerian compared to water. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that the left frontal region of the brain is involved in positive/approach-related emotion, and extend previous results into the olfactory realm. Copyright (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V.
• Kline, J. P., Schwartz, G. E., Dikman, Z. V., & Bell, I. R. (2000). Electroencephalographic Registration of Low Concentrations of Isoamyl Acetate. Consciousness and Cognition, 9(1), 50-65.
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  PMID: 10753493;Abstract: Previous research has demonstrated electroencephalogram (EEG) changes in response to low-odor concentrations, resulting in near-chance detection. Such findings have been taken as evidence for olfaction without awareness. We replicated and extended previous work by examining EEG responses to water-water control, 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, and 1 ppm isoamyl acetate (IAA) in water paired with water only. Detection was above chance (>50%) for .001 and above, and alpha decreased only to those concentrations, suggesting that EEG changes corresponded to IAA awareness. However, when correct trial EEGs were compared to incorrect trial EEGs during .001 ppm, right posterior/central alpha decreased during incorrect trials and alpha decreased more globally (including frontal sites) during correct trials. These data may not reflect awareness or unawareness per se. Instead, results are discussed regarding activation of perceptual systems in the posterior region during incorrect trials and the activation of frontal action systems during a subset of correct trials. © 2000 Academic Press.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (2000). Living energy systems, and the 'bridge problem'. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 16(2), 92-95.
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  PMID: 10835766;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (2000). Testing the immortality hypothesis [2]. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 6(4), 20-21.
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  PMID: 10895509;
• Schwartz, G. E., Russek, L. G., Bell, I. R., & Riley, D. (2000). Plausibility of homeopathy and conventional chemical therapy: The systemic memory resonance hypothesis. Medical Hypotheses, 54(4), 634-637.
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  PMID: 10859655;Abstract: The controversy surrounding clinical observations and double-blind studies on homeopathic treatments is lessened when modern dynamical systems analysis is applied to high-dilution therapies. The logic of recurrent feedback loops, which applies to all dynamical network systems, inexorably leads to the systemic memory hypothesis - that complex patterns of emergent information and energy are stored to various degrees in physical, chemical, and biological systems. The addition of resonance, a dynamic pattern recognition process, explains many classic observations using high-dilution therapies. The systemic memory resonance hypothesis potentially provides a plausible biophysical mechanism for explaining not only how high-dilution therapies contribute to healing, but by extension, how information and energy in low-dilution and chemical therapies contribute to healing as well. (C) 2000 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.
• Schwartz, G., Shapiro, S. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (2000). Intentional systemic mindfulness: an integrative model for self-regulation and health. Advances in mind-body medicine, 16(2).
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  Self-regulation is the process whereby systems maintain stability of functioning and adaptability to change. Self-regulation is based on feedback loops which can be enhanced through attention. All self-regulation techniques, therefore, involve the cultivation of attention. However, the intention with which attention is directed may be crucial. In this paper, we explore intentional systemic mindfulness a model that explicitly introduces intention into self-regulation theory and practice. Intention as defined by this model is composed of the context of attention-systemic perspectives - and the quality of attention - mindfulness qualities. Intentional systemic mindfulness addresses both "why" (systemic perspectives) and "how" (mindfulness qualities) one directs attention, which may promote healing on multiple levels. Directions for research and implications for multiple levels of integrative health are considered.
• Schwartz, G., Shapiro, S. L., Shapiro, D. E., & Schwartz, G. E. (2000). Stress management in medical education: a review of the literature. Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 75(7).
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  To review systematically clinical studies providing empirical data on stress-management programs in medical training.
• Shapiro, S. L., Shapiro, D. E., & E., G. (2000). Stress management in medical education: A review of the literature. Academic Medicine, 75(7), 748-759.
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  PMID: 10926029;Abstract: Purpose. To review systematically clinical studies providing empirical data on stress-management programs in medical training. Method. The authors searched Medline and PSYCHINFO from 1966 to 1999. Studies were included if they evaluated stress-management programs for medical trainees (medical students, interns, or residents); reported empirical data; and had been conducted at allopathic medical schools. Results. Although the search yielded over 600 articles discussing the importance of addressing the stress of medical education, only 24 studies reported intervention programs, and only six of those used rigorous scientific method. Results revealed that medical trainees participating in stress-management programs demonstrated (1) improved immunologic functioning, (2) decreases in depression and anxiety, (3) increased spirituality and empathy, (4) enhanced knowledge of alternative therapies for future referrals, (5) improved knowledge of the effects of stress, (6) greater use of positive coping skills, and (7) the ability to resolve role conflicts. Despite these promising results, the studies had many limitations. Conclusions. The following considerations should be incorporated into future research: (1) rigorous study design, including randomization and control (comparison) groups, (2) measurement of moderator variables to determine which intervention works best for whom, (3) specificity of outcome measures, and (4) follow-up assessment, including effectiveness of future patient care.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., Fernandez, M., & E., G. (1999). Neural sensitization model for multiple chemical sensitivity: Overview of theory and empirical evidence. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 15(3-4), 295-304.
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  PMID: 10416281;Abstract: This paper summarizes theory and evidence for a neural sensitization model of hyperresponsivity to low-level chemical exposures in multiple chemical sensitivity (M]CS). MCS is a chronic polysymptomatic condition in which patients report illness from low levels of many different, structurally unrelated environmental chemicals (chemical intolerance, CI). Neural sensitization is the progressive host amplification of a response over time from repeated, intermittent exposures to a stimulus. Drugs, chemicals, endogenous mediators, and exogenous stressors can all initiate sensitization and can exhibit cross- sensitization between different classes of stimuli. The properties of sensitization overlap much of the clinical phenomenology of MCS. Animal studies have demonstrated sensitization to toluene, formaldehyde, and certain pesticides, as well as cross-sensitization, e.g., formaldehyde and cocaine. Controlled human studies in persons with self-reported CI have shown heightened sensitizability in the laboratory to nonspecific experimental factors and to specific chemical exposures. Useful outcome measures include spectral electroencephalography, blood pressure, heart rate, and plasma beta-endorphin. Findings implicate, in part, dopaminergic mesolimbic pathways and limbic structures. A convergence of evidence suggests that persons with MCS or with low-level CI may share some characteristics with individuals genetically vulnerable to substance abuse: (a) elevated family histories of alcohol or drug problems; (b) heightened capacity for sensitization of autonomic variables in the laboratory; (c) increased amounts of electroencephalographic alpha activity at rest and under challenge conditions over time. Sensitization is compatible with other models for MCS as well. The neural sensitization model provides a direction for further systematic human and animal research on the physiological bases of MCS and CI.
• E., G. (1999). Loving openness as a meta-world hypothesis: Expanding our vision of mind and medicine. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 15(1), 5-19.
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  PMID: 10955969;Abstract: In 1942, Stephen C. Pepper published a seminal book, World Hypothesis, that sought to explain how people create hypotheses about the world. Pepper proposed that there were four basic world hypotheses: (1) formistic (the hypothesis that nature exists as categories); (2) mechanistic (the hypothesis that nature obeys cause-effect relationships); (3) contextual (the hypothesis that processes in nature are relative and context dependent); and (4) organismic (the hypothesis that processes in nature reflect interactive relationships in systems). Most classical and modern theories of science and medicine implicitly adopt one or more of these foundational hypotheses. In 1997, Schwartz and Russek proposed that there were four additional world hypotheses: (5) implicit process (the hypothesis that nature consists of invisible forces and information, such as energy and consciousness); (6) circular causality (the hypothesis that nature consists of circulating interactions that inherently change over time); (7) creative unfolding (the hypothesis that processes in nature reflect flexible designs or plans that have adaptive function); and (8) integrative diversity (the hypothesis that phenomena in nature reflect complex integrations of diverse processes). Theories in postmodern and integrative science implicitly adopt hypotheses 5 through 8. However, underlying the creation of the eight world hypotheses is an implicit meta-world hypothesis which we term loving openness (the hypothesis that phenomena in nature reflect levels of openness and caring). This paper briefly explains the origin and implications of the loving openness meta-world hypothesis for understanding mind-body healing in medicine, the reordering of values in integrative medicine (with a primary focus on caring with humility), and the fostering of a new vision for twenty-first century frontier science, spirituality, and medicine. © John E. Fetzer Institute 1999.
• Fernandez, M., Bell, I. R., & E., G. (1999). EEG sensitization during chemical exposure in women with and without chemical sensitivity of unknown etiology. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 15(3-4), 305-312.
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  PMID: 10416282;Abstract: This study tested the sensitization model proposed by Bell et al. [Bell I.R., Miller C.S. and Schwartz G.E. An olfactory- limbic model of multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome: possible relationship to kindling and affective spectrum disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 1992: 32:218-242] to study chemical sensitivity. The sensitization model indicates that a pharmacological stimulus or a traumatic event which elicits a strong response can sensitize limbic and/or mesolimbic pathways; and subsequent less intense trauma or stimuli, in the same or different modality, can elicit an amplified response. Three groups of subjects were tested: (1) women who reported chemical sensitivity and no sexual abuse (chemically sensitive, CS); (2) sexually abused (SA) women without chemical sensitivity; and (3) healthy women without chemical sensitivity or sexual abuse history (normal, N). All subjects were exposed to odorant and nonodorous control stimuli once a week for 3 weeks. Electroencephalographic activity was recorded while subjects sniffed the odorant and control stimuli. Results of the study revealed that both the CS and the SA group showed electroencephalogram (EEG) α sensitization across experimental sessions, while the N group showed little change over time. Additionally, EEG findings revealed that the CS group generated significantly greater α activity than the other two groups. Finally, while the groups were different on measures of psychological distress, these differences did not diminish the EEG findings. In summary, these findings suggest that intermittent exposure to chemicals elicits sensitization in CS and SA women without chemical sensitivity, supporting our expectations that chemical sensitivity is, in part, a manifestation of time-dependent sensitization (TDS). Additionally, these EEG findings indicate that CS women are unlike SA and healthy women in the amount of EEG α activity they generate. Finally, these findings indicate that psychological factors as assessed in this study do not explain electrophysiological differences between chemically and non- chemically-sensitive women.
• Fernandez, M., E., G., & Bell, I. R. (1999). Subjective ratings of odorants by women with chemical sensitivity. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 15(6), 577-581.
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  PMID: 10560135;Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether women with chemical sensitivity rated the intensity and pleasantness of three odorants [peppermint, vanilla, and propylene glycol (PG)] and odorless room air differently than women without chemical sensitivity. The ratings of the experimental group (women with self-reported chemical sensitivity and no history of sexual abuse) were compared to those of two control groups who did not report chemical sensitivity [sexually abused (SA) women and healthy women without sexual abuse history]. All subjects were exposed to odorants and odorless control stimuli once a week for 3 consecutive weeks. Our findings indicate that women with chemical sensitivity perceive odorants as neither more or less intense nor more or less pleasant than women without chemical sensitivity. Moreover, the control women without sexual abuse outperformed the women in the other two groups by correctly identifying the target bottle containing the odorant. These findings suggest that perception of odorants alone is unlikely to account for the symptoms associated with chemical sensitivity. These findings, along with those of Doty et al. (1988), support the notion that olfactory-sensory function does not differ between individuals with and without chemical sensitivity.
• Kline, J. P., Blackhart, G. C., & Schwartz, G. E. (1999). Gender specificity of resting anterior electroencephalographic asymmetry and defensiveness in the elderly.. The journal of gender-specific medicine : JGSM : the official journal of the Partnership for Women"s Health at Columbia, 2(4), 35-39.
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  PMID: 11252841;Abstract: OBJECTIVE: It has been reported that defensiveness in women is associated with relative left-frontal electroencephalogram (EEG) activation, while defensiveness in men is associated with relative right-frontal EEG activation. The present study examined whether this result generalized to men and women between the ages of 58 and 70. DESIGN: The Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSD) and EEG testing were used to examine relationships between gender, defensiveness, and anterior asymmetry. PARTICIPANTS: Men (n = 18) and women (n = 54) between the ages of 58 and 70 (mean age = 64.22, standard deviation = 3.003) were recruited from Tucson and surrounding areas of Pima County, Arizona. They were selected from among participants in an integrative health sciences study of aging that took place between 1991 and 1993. METHOD: Subjects were divided into high-defensive and low-defensive groups based on a median split on the MCSD. EEGs were recorded from 19 channels (standard 10-20 montage), referenced to linked ears, and digitalized on-line at 128 Hz (band pass 2-32 Hz) during consecutive 60-second eyes-open and eyes-closed baselines. Two-second epochs containing bioelectric artifacts > 50 microvolts were eliminated from analyses. Average alpha (8-13 Hz) power (microV2)) was computed by Fast Fourier Transform and natural log (ln) transformed for normalization. Asymmetry scores were computed (log[right]-log[left]) for F4-F3, Fp2-Fp1, F8-F7, C4-C3, T4-T3, T6-T5, P4-P3, and O2-O1 for aggregated eyes-open and eyes-closed baselines. R-L asymmetry scores were analyzed for the aggregate frontal lead pairs, as well as for each pair separately. RESULTS: Findings were similar to those previously reported in that the direction of the relationship in men and women was the same. The results differed in that we found left-frontal activation in low-defensive men, whereas the previous study found right-frontal activation in high-defensive men. Furthermore, although in the same direction, the relationship for women was nonsignificant. CONCLUSION: These differences may have been due to the age of the participants, a lax impedence criterion, or the use of the MCSD rather than the L scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, as in the earlier study. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that gender differences in the relationship between resting anterior EEG asymmetry and defensiveness may persist throughout the life span.
• Pearsall, P., Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (1999). Changes in heart transplant recipients that parallel the personalities of their donors. Integrative Medicine, 2(2-3), 65-72.
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  Abstract: Context: It is generally assumed that learning is restricted to neural and immune systems. However, the systemic memory hypothesis predicts that all dynamical systems that contain recurrent feedback loops store information and energy to various degrees. Sensitive transplant patients may evidence personal changes that parallel the history of their donors. Objective: To evaluate whether changes following heart transplant surgery parallel the history of the donors. Design: Open-ended interviews with volunteer (1) transplant recipients, (2) recipient families or friends, and (3) donor families or friends. Setting: Hospitals in various parts of the country. Patients: Ten recipients (7 males, 3 females; 7 months to 56 years old), received heart (or heart-lung) transplants (5 males, 5 females; 16 months to 34 years old). Main Outcome Measures: Transcripts of audio taped interviews quoted verbatim. Results: Two to 5 parallels per case were observed between changes following surgery and the histories of the donors. Parallels included changes in food, music, art, sexual, recreational, and career preferences, as well as specific instances of perceptions of names and sensory experiences related to the donors (e.g., one donor was killed by a gun shot to the face; the recipient had dreams of seeing hot flashes of light in his face). Conclusion: The incidence of recipient awareness of personal changes in cardiac transplant patients is unknown. The effects of the immunosuppressant drugs, stress of the surgery, and statistical coincidence are likely insufficient to explain the findings. The plausibility of cellular memory, possibly systemic memory, is suggested. Copyright (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Inc.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Illness from low levels of environmental chemicals: Relevance to chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. American Journal of Medicine, 105(3 A), 74S-82S.
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  PMID: 9790486;Abstract: This article summarizes (1) epidemiologic and clinical data on the symptoms of maladies in association with low-level chemicals in the environment, i.e., environmental chemical intolerance (Cl), as it may relate to chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) and fibromyalgia; and (2) the olfactory- limbic neural sensitization model for Cl, a neurobehavioral synthesis of basic and clinical research. Severe Cl is a characteristic of 20-47% of individuals with apparent CFS and/or fibromyalgia, all patients with multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), and approximately 4-6% of the general population. In the general population, 15-30% report at least minor problems with Cl. The levels of chemicals reported to trigger Cl would normally be considered nontoxic or subtoxic. However, host factors-e.g., individual differences in susceptibility to neurohormonal sensitization (amplification) of endogenous responses-may contribute to generating a disabling intensity to the resultant multisystem dysfunctions in Cl. One site for this amplification may be the limbic system of the brain, which receives input from the olfactory pathways and sends efferents to the hypothalamus and the mesolimbic dopaminergic [reward] pathway. Chemical, biologic, and psychological stimuli can initiate and elicit sensitization. In turn, subsequent activation of the sensitized limbic and mesolimbic pathways can then facilitate dysregulation of behavioral, autonomic, endocrine, and immune system functions. Research to date has demonstrated the initiation of neurobehavioral sensitization by volatile organic compounds and pesticides in animals, as well as sensitizability of cardiovascular parameters, β-endorphin levels, resting EEG α-wave activity, and divided-attention task performance in persons with Cl. The ability of multiple types of widely divergent stimuli to initiate and elicit sensitization offers a new perspective on the search for mechanisms of illness in CFS and fibromyalgia with Cl.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., E., G., & G., L. (1998). Integrating belief systems and therapies in medicine: Application of the eight world hypotheses to classical homeopathy. Integrative Medicine, 1(3), 95-105.
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  Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to apply the eight world hypotheses model of science to classical homeopathy. The model identifies an interactive hierarchy of levels of thinking about nature: (1) formistic/categorical; (2) mechanistic/cause-effect; (3) contextual/relativistic; (4) organismic; (5) implicit process; (6) circular causality; (7) creative unfolding; and (8) integrative diversity. These levels represent different scientific paradigms, i.e., classical science (levels 1-2), modern science (levels 3-4), postmodern science (levels 5-6), and integrative science (levels 7-8), which help explain the variability with which mainstream medicine has begun to integrate different forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). Homeopathy is one of the most comprehensive systems of CAM therapies, but to date it has received little consideration for integration. After summarizing the theory and practice of homeopathy, we use these concepts within the eight world hypotheses to provide a framework for understanding homeopathy's past rejection by conventional medicine and for facilitating research toward the integration of homeopathy into the mainstream medicine of the future.
• Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., Russek, L. G., Schwartz, G. E., & Hardin, E. E. (1998). Early life stress, negative paternal relationships, and chemical intolerance in middle-aged women: Support for a neural sensitization model. Journal of Women's Health, 7(9), 1135-1147.
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  PMID: 9861591;Abstract: This study (n(total) = 35) compared early life stress ratings, parental relationships, and health status, notably orthostatic blood pressures, of middle-aged women with low-level chemical intolerance (CI group) and depression, depressives without CI (DEP group), and normals. Environmental chemical intolerance is a symptom of several controversial conditions in which women are overrepresented, that is, sick building syndrome, multiple chemical sensitivity, chronic fatigue syndrome, and fibromyalgia. Previous investigators have postulated that people with CI have variants of somatization disorder, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) initiated by childhood abuse or a toxic exposure event. One neurobehavioral model for CI, somatization disorder, recurrent depression, and PTSD is neural sensitization, that is, the progressive amplification of host responses (e.g., behavioral, neurochemical) to repeated intermittent stimuli (e.g., drugs, chemicals, endogenous mediators, stressors). Females are more vulnerable to sensitization than are males. Limbic and mesolimbic pathways mediate central nervous system sensitization. Although both CI and DEP groups had high levels of life stress and past abuse, the CI group had the most distant and weak paternal relationships and highest limbic somatic dysfunction subscale scores. Only the CI group showed sensitization of sitting blood pressures over sessions. Together with prior evidence, these data are consistent with a neural sensitization model for CI in certain women. The findings may have implications for poorer long-term medical as well as neuropsychiatric health outcomes of a subset of women with CI. Subsequent research should test this model in specific clinical diagnostic groups with CI.
• Bell, I. R., Kline, J. P., Schwartz, G. E., & Peterson, J. M. (1998). Quantitative EEG patterns during nose versus mouth inhalation of filtered room air in young adults with and without self-reported chemical odor intolerances. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 28(1), 23-35.
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  PMID: 9506309;Abstract: Individuals who report illness (e.g. nausea, headache) from common chemical odors tend to report CNS symptoms suggestive of olfactory-limbic system involvement. This study compared the resting quantitative electroencephalographic (qEEG) patterns of young adult college students reporting subjectively elevated chemical odor intolerance ratings (HICI) with those of controls reporting little or no odor intolerance (LOCI). Each group was subdivided into those with higher (HIDEP) vs. lower (LODEP) ratings of concomitant depression. Nineteen channels of EEG were recorded during a single session over four separate rest periods, respectively, following baseline, cognitive, chemical exposure and olfactory identification tests. Each recording involved two 30-s, eyes-closed, filtered room air breathing conditions: (1) nose inhalation followed by mouth exhalation and (2) mouth inhalation followed by mouth exhalation. HICI showed significantly less beta 1 (β1) over the temporal-central region during nose than during mouth inhalation. Over some temporal and central leads, task, DEP and CI interacted to influence β1 as well. For theta (θ), CI differences emerged during nose inhalation after the cognitive task at C(z), after chemical exposures at C3, C(z) and C4 and after the olfactory ID task at C4. CI differences emerged during mouth breathing after the olfactory ID task at C(z), C4 and T4. The T5-T6 coronal array showed significant CI differences after chemical exposures during nose breathing and during mouth breathing after the cognitive and olfactory ID tasks. The θ findings in the HICI may be related to reports of disturbed attention in CI.
• Bell, I. R., Patarca, R., Baldwin, C. M., Klimas, N. G., Schwartz, G. E., & Hardin, E. E. (1998). Serum neopterin and somatization in women with chemical intolerance, depressives, and normals. Neuropsychobiology, 38(1), 13-18.
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  PMID: 9701717;Abstract: The symptom of intolerance to low levels of environmental chemicals (CI, chemical intolerance) is a feature of several controversial polysymptomatic conditions that overlap symptomatically with depression and somatization, i.e., chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, multiple chemical sensitivity, and Persian Gulf syndrome. These syndromes can involve many somatic symptoms consistent with possible inflammation. Immunological or neurogenic triggering might account for such inflammation. Serum neopterin, which has an inverse relationship with l-tryptophan availability, may offer a marker of inflammation and macrophage/monocyte activation. This study compared middle-aged women with CI (who had high levels of affective distress; n = 14), depressives without CI (n = 10), and normals (n = 11). Groups did not differ in 4 p.m. resting levels of serum neopterin. However, the CI alone had strong positive correlations between neopterin and all of the scales measuring somatization. These preliminary findings suggest the need for additional research on biological correlates of 'unexplained' multiple somatic symptoms in subtypes of apparent somatizing disorders.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Hardin, E. E., Baldwin, C. M., & Kline, J. P. (1998). Differential resting quantitative electroencephalographic alpha patterns in women with environmental chemical intolerance, depressives, and normals. Biological Psychiatry, 43(5), 376-388.
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  PMID: 9513754;Abstract: Background: Previous research suggests that a subset of individuals with intolerance to low levels of environmental chemicals have increased levels of premorbid and/or comorbid psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, and somatization. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the psychological profiles and quantitative electoencephalographic (qEEG) profiles at baseline of women with and without chemical intolerance (CI). Methods: Participants were middle-aged women who reported illness from the odor of common chemicals (CI, n = 14), depressives without such intolerances (D, n = 10), and normal controls (N, n =11). They completed a set of psychological scales and underwent two separate qEEG recording laboratory sessions spaced 1 week apart, at the same time of day for each subject. Results: CI were similar to D with increased lifetime histories of physician-diagnosed depression (71% vs. 100%), Symptom Checklist 90 (revised) (SCL-90-R) somatization scores, Barsky Somatic Symptom Amplification, and perceived life stressfulness, although D had more distress than either CI or N on several other SCL-90-R subscales. CI scored significantly higher on the McLean Limbic Symptom Checklist somatic symptom subscale than did either D or N. On qEEG, CI exhibited significantly greater overall resting absolute alpha activity with eyes closed, especially at the parietal midline site (Pz), and increased (sensitized) frontal alpha from session 1 to 2, in contrast with the D and N groups. D showed right frontal asymmetry in both sessions, in comparison with CI. Conclusions: The data indicate that CI with affective distress diverge from both D without chemical intolerance and N in qEEG alpha patterns at resting baseline. Although CI descriptively resemble D with increased psychological distress, the CI's greater alpha suggests the possibility of a) central nervous system hypo-, not hyper-, activation; and/or b) an overlap with EEG alpha patterns of persons with positive family histories of alcoholism.
• Bell, I. R., Warg-Damiani, L., Baldwin, C. M., Walsh, M. E., & E., G. (1998). Self-reported chemical sensitivity and wartime chemical exposures in Gulf War veterans with and without decreased global health ratings. Military Medicine, 163(11), 725-732.
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  PMID: 9819530;Abstract: This cross-sectional telephone survey study assessed prevalence rates of current chemical sensitivity, frequency of chemical odor intolerance, and self-reported Persian Gulf chemical exposures among 41 randomly sampled Department of Veterans Affairs outpatients who were Persian Gulf War (PGW) and PGW-era veterans. The participants were drawn from an initial random list of 100 veterans, of whom 28 PGW and 20 era veterans had correct telephone data on file. Of those contacted, 86% of PGW veterans (24/28) and 85% of era veterans (17/20) agreed to participate. Significantly more PGW veterans with poorer global health after military service reported considering themselves now 'especially sensitive to certain chemicals' (86%, 12/14) than did the PGW veterans or era veterans in stable health (both comparison groups 30%, 3/10). Among PGW veterans, the subset with worse health associated with marked increases in chemical odor intolerance since their military service had a significantly higher odds ratio for exposure to multiple chemicals, notably wartime pesticides and insect repellent, than did comparison groups. The high rate of chemical sensitivity of PGW veterans with deteriorated health is almost three times that in PGW-era veterans and in elderly primary care outpatient veterans at the same Department of Veterans Affairs medical center and in community-based civilian samples (i.e., 30%). These preliminary findings suggest the need for further study of chemical sensitivity, including tests for acquired increases in neural sensitizability to multiple low-level chemicals, in ill PGW veterans.
• G., L., & E., G. (1998). Reducing stress in the intensive care unit: Integrating mind-body values with modern technology. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 14(1), 71-73.
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  Abstract: In response to the question "If you were in a hospital, would you prefer a traditional audible alarm system [described as creating noises, overhead pages, and emergency alarms for Code Blues] or a new quiet alarm system [described as silently sending vital information to a main control station located in the center of the floor, providing visual and auditory information to health care providers that would remain active until the problem was corrected at the bedside]?" -91% of a sample of 181 subjects indicated they would prefer the quiet alarm system. Subjects indicated that they believed the quiet alarm system would be less stressful, would facilitate healing of the patient, and would be less stressful to health-care professionals as well. Integrating the vision and values of mind-body medicine with modern technology that reduces stress generated by a hospital's physical environment could be a component of one medicine. © John E. Fetzer Institute 1998.
• Kline, J. P., Bell, I., Schwartz, G. E., Hau, V., & Davis, T. (1998). Repressive and defensive coping styles predict resting plasma endorphin levels in the elderly. Biological Psychology, 49(3), 295-302.
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  PMID: 9858058;Abstract: Jamner, L.D., Schwartz, G.E., 1986, Psychosom. Med. 48, 211-223, have proposed that repressive and defensive coping are associated with greater central endogenous opioid activity. They reasoned that high-defensive (HD) participants' attenuated distress, increased pain tolerances, attenuated somatic symptomatology, and accentuated reports of positive emotions are consistent with actions of centrally active opioid peptides. The present study assessed plasma β-endorphin (END) levels, Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSD), and Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) scores in men (n=6) and women (n=20) between the ages of 59 and 79. Contrary to predictions, HD had lower plasma endorphin levels than did low-defensive (LD) participants. Raw MCSD scores correlated negatively with endorphin levels. Findings were significant for women only, which may have been due to the small sample of men. The results are discussed as they related to the hypothesis that defensiveness involves alteration of central opioid systems. Copyright (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.
• Kline, J. P., J., J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Is left frontal brain activation in defensiveness gender specific?. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(1), 149-153.
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  PMID: 9505047;Abstract: A. J. Tomarken and R. J. Davidson (1994) reported that defensiveness is characterized by relative left frontal brain activation. Because they examined only women, gender differences in this relation are possible. In the present study, resting alpha asymmetries in right-handed men (n = 25) and women (n = 60) were related to defensiveness, measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire L scale. These results were similar to those of Tomarken and Davidson in that defensiveness correlated positively with relative left frontal activation in women. An unexpected finding was that high-defensive men showed relative right frontal activation, a result virtually opposite that for women. These results imply that the nature of defensiveness as a coping strategy may vary as a function of gender.
• Kline, J. P., Schwartz, G. E., J., J., & Dikman, Z. V. (1998). Perceptual and electroencephalographic registration of masked emotional words in defensiveness: An exploratory study. Personality and Individual Differences, 24(4), 499-512.
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  Abstract: This study measured perceptual and electroencephalographic responses to masked pleasant, unpleasant, neutral and sexual words in participants scoring as high defensive (N = 22) or low defensive (N = 30) on the EPQ-L. Six words of each category were presented in random order in ascending durations between 50.1 ms random letter masks. A word identification task designed to elicit impression management (i.e. by requiring participants to say sexual words aloud), preceded a word detection task designed to assess perceptual sensitivity (i.e. by having subjects quietly choose from among words from the same category). Sexual words appeared to elicit impression management, which did not differ between groups. Patterns of detection accuracies for the various emotional word categories differed for high and low defensive participants in a manner consistent with individual differences in unconscious processing of emotional words. Parallel differences emerged in patterns of electroencephalographic α (8-13 Hz) decreases in response to the words, with unconscious effects having a posterior topography. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
• Lane, R. D., Reiman, E. M., Axelrod, B., Yun, L., Holmes, A., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Neural correlates of levels of emotional awareness: Evidence of an interaction between emotion and attention in the anterior cingulate cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(4), 525-535.
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  PMID: 9712681;Abstract: Recent functional imaging studies have begun to identify the neural correlates of emotion in healthy volunteers. However, studies to date have not differentially addressed the brain areas associated with the perception, experience, or expression of emotion during emotional arousal. To explore the neural correlates of emotional experience, we used positron emission tomography (PET) and 15O-water to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) in 12 healthy women during film- and recall-induced emotion and correlated CBF changes attributable to emotion with subjects' scores on the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS), a measure of individual differences in the capacity to experience emotion in a differentiated and complex way. A conjunction analysis revealed that the correlations between LEAS and CBF during film- and recall-induced emotion overlapped significantly (z = 3.74,p < 0.001) in Brodmann's area 24 of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). This finding suggests that individual differences in the ability to accurately detect emotional signals interoceptively or exteroceptively may at least in part be a function of the degree to which the ACC participates in the experiential processing and response to emotion cues. To the extent that this finding is consistent with the functions of the ACC involving attention and response selection, it suggests that this neural correlate of conscious emotional experience is not exclusive to emotion.
• Russek, L. G., Schwartz, G. E., Bell, I. R., & Baldwin, C. M. (1998). Positive perceptions of parental caring are associated with reduced psychiatric and somatic symptoms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60(5), 654-657.
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  PMID: 9773773;Abstract: Objective: In a previous 35-year follow-up investigation to the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study, positive ratings of parental caring obtained in healthy male college students were found to be predictive of substantially reduced disease incidence (including cardiovascular disease, ulcers, and alcoholism) in mid-life. The present cross-sectional study examined the relationship between perceptions of parental caring, current psychiatric and somatic symptoms, and defensiveness, in a University of Arizona sample of females and males. Method: The Harvard Parental Caring Scale (HPCS), the SCL90R, and the Marlowe-Crowne (MC) scale (a measure of defensiveness) were administered to 398 students at the University of Arizona. Results: Cronbach alphas were 83 for HPCS ratings of mothers and .88 for fathers. High HPCS ratings were associated with reduced symptoms reports in both females and males (p < .00002). Ratings of HPCS showed a small correlation with defensiveness (r = .141). The relationship between HPCS and symptoms was strongest in the least defensive subjects. Conclusions: Positive perceptions of love and caring from parents, typically the most important source of social support for children, are associated with reduced psychiatric and somatic symptoms. Defensiveness may play a protective role psychologically (but not necessarily physiologically) in reducing the conscious awareness of symptoms accompanying low perceptions of parental love and caring.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (1998). A closer look at therapeutic touch: Fostering 'integritive' medical science. Integrative Medicine, 1(4), 177-178.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (1998). Can physics and physical chemistry explain the workings of homeopathy? A systemic memory view.. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.), 4(4), 366-367.
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  PMID: 9884173;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (1998). Previously published research may help to deflate TT controversy.. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 4(5), 112, 114.
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  PMID: 9737035;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (1998). The plausibility of homeopathy: The systemic memory mechanism. Integrative Medicine, 1(2), 53-59.
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  Abstract: Despite 200 years of practice of high dilution therapy known as homeopathy, and despite a number of recent studies documenting homeopathic treatment effects under double-blind conditions, the medical and scientific community has generally dismissed these findings because of a lack of a plausible mechanism for the observed effects. This article outlines how modem systems science reenvisions memory in water and dynamic systems in general. We present the logic that inexorably leads to the prediction that recurrent feedback interactions result in the storage of information and the creation of systemic memories in dynamic systems at all levels in nature. The complex nonlinear interactions that naturally accumulate through the circulation of information and energy in systems are shown to be dynamic memories that reflect the evolving identity of systems as emerging wholes. The theory provides a highly plausible mechanism for understanding numerous seemingly implausible and controversial observations in contemporary science and medicine, including memory in water and homeopathy.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Illness from low levels of environmental chemicals: relevance to chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. The American journal of medicine, 105(3A).
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  This article summarizes (1) epidemiologic and clinical data on the symptoms of maladies in association with low-level chemicals in the environment, i.e., environmental chemical intolerance (CI), as it may relate to chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) and fibromyalgia; and (2) the olfactory-limbic neural sensitization model for CI, a neurobehavioral synthesis of basic and clinical research. Severe CI is a characteristic of 20-47% of individuals with apparent CFS and/or fibromyalgia, all patients with multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), and approximately 4-6% of the general population. In the general population, 15-30% report at least minor problems with CI. The levels of chemicals reported to trigger CI would normally be considered nontoxic or subtoxic. However, host factors--e.g., individual differences in susceptibility to neurohormonal sensitization (amplification) of endogenous responses--may contribute to generating a disabling intensity to the resultant multisystem dysfunctions in CI. One site for this amplification may be the limbic system of the brain, which receives input from the olfactory pathways and sends efferents to the hypothalamus and the mesolimbic dopaminergic [reward] pathway. Chemical, biologic, and psychological stimuli can initiate and elicit sensitization. In turn, subsequent activation of the sensitized limbic and mesolimbic pathways can then facilitate dysregulation of behavioral, autonomic, endocrine, and immune system functions. Research to date has demonstrated the initiation of neurobehavioral sensitization by volatile organic compounds and pesticides in animals, as well as sensitizability of cardiovascular parameters, beta-endorphin levels, resting EEG alpha-wave activity, and divided-attention task performance in persons with CI. The ability of multiple types of widely divergent stimuli to initiate and elicit sensitization offers a new perspective on the search for mechanisms of illness in CFS and fibromyalgia with CI.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Warg-Damiani, L., Baldwin, C. M., Walsh, M. E., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Self-reported chemical sensitivity and wartime chemical exposures in Gulf War veterans with and without decreased global health ratings. Military medicine, 163(11).
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  This cross-sectional telephone survey study assessed prevalence rates of current chemical sensitivity, frequency of chemical odor intolerance, and self-reported Persian Gulf chemical exposures among 41 randomly sampled Department of Veterans Affairs outpatients who were Persian Gulf War (PGW) and PGW-era veterans. The participants were drawn from an initial random list of 100 veterans, of whom 28 PGW and 20 era veterans had correct telephone data on file. Of those contacted, 86% of PGW veterans (24/28) and 85% of era veterans (17/20) agreed to participate. Significantly more PGW veterans with poorer global health after military service reported considering themselves now "especially sensitive to certain chemicals" (86%, 12/14) than did the PGW veterans or era veterans in stable health (both comparison groups 30%, 3/10). Among PGW veterans, the subset with worse health associated with marked increases in chemical odor intolerance since their military service had a significantly higher odds ratio for exposure to multiple chemicals, notably wartime pesticides and insect repellent, than did comparison groups. The high rate of chemical sensitivity of PGW veterans with deteriorated health is almost three times that in PGW-era veterans and in elderly primary care outpatient veterans at the same Department of Veterans Affairs medical center and in community-based civilian samples (i.e., 30%). These preliminary findings suggest the need for further study of chemical sensitivity, including tests for acquired increases in neural sensitizability to multiple low-level chemicals, in ill PGW veterans.
• Schwartz, G., Lane, R. D., Reiman, E. M., Axelrod, B., Yun, L. S., Holmes, A., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Neural correlates of levels of emotional awareness. Evidence of an interaction between emotion and attention in the anterior cingulate cortex. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 10(4).
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  Recent functional imaging studies have begun to identify the neural correlates of emotion in healthy volunteers. However, studies to date have not differentially addressed the brain areas associated with the perception, experience, or expression of emotion during emotional arousal. To explore the neural correlates of emotional experience, we used positron emission tomography (PET) and 15-water to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) in 12 healthy women during film- and recall-induced emotion and correlated CBF changes attributable to emotion with subjects' scores on the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS), a measure of individual differences in the capacity to experience emotion in a differentiated and complex way. A conjunction analysis revealed that the correlations between LEAS and CBF during film- and recall-induced emotion overlapped significantly (z = 3.74, p < 0. 001) in Brodmann's area 24 of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). This finding suggests that individual differences in the ability to accurately detect emotional signals interoceptively or exteroceptively may at least in part be a function of the degree to which the ACC participates in the experiential processing and response to emotion cues. To the extent that this finding is consistent with the functions of the ACC involving attention and response selection, it suggests that this neural correlate of conscious emotional experience is not exclusive to emotion.
• Shapiro, S. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (1998). Mindfulness in medical education: Fostering the health of physicians and medical practice. Integrative Medicine, 1(3), 93-94.
• Shapiro, S. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Bonner, G. (1998). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on medical and premedical students. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 21(6), 581-599.
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  PMID: 9891256;Abstract: The inability to cope successfully with the enormous stress of medical education may lead to a cascade of consequences at both a personal and professional level. The present study examined the short-term effects of an 8 week meditation-based stress reduction intervention on premedical and medical students using a well-controlled statistical design. Findings indicate that participation in the intervention can effectively (1) reduce self-reported state and trait anxiety, (2) reduce reports of overall psychological distress including depression, (3) increase scores on overall empathy levels, and (4) increase scores on a measure of spiritual experiences assessed at termination of intervention. These results (5) replicated in the wait-list control group, (6) held across different experiments, and (7) were observed during the exam period. Future research should address potential long-term effects of mindfulness training for medical and premedical students.
• Taylor, C., Schwartz, G. E., Russek, L. G., & Sechrest, L. (1998). A matter of life or death: Organizational change in the real world. Journal of Management Education, 22(3), 400-407.
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  Abstract: There are times when even academics have a chance to get their feet wet in the real world-to use their expertise in a collaborative effort to help make a difference on a matter of deep public concern. This article describes the efforts of a handful of academic researchers from varying disciplinary backgrounds who pooled their respective expertise in an attempt to influence a real life-or-death situation (the impending execution of a potentially innocent person). The challenges to personal and organizational change are described and discussed. © 1998 Sage Publication, Inc.
• Z., L., E., G., & G., L. (1998). Heart-focused attention and heart-brain synchronization: Energetic and physiological mechanisms. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 4(5), 44-62.
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  PMID: 9737031;Abstract: Context • Many relaxation, meditation, and imagery techniques that implicitly or explicitly involve focused attention on the body, including qigong, massage, and noncontact therapeutic touch, purportedly employ energetic and physiological mechanisms. Objective • To show that, from a perspective of dynamical energy systems, relaxed self-attention enhances connectivity between the brain and body. This enhanced connectivity may be achieved by at least 2 mechanisms: (1) physiological mechanisms employing peripheral negative feedback loops, and (2) bioelectromagnetic mechanisms involving direct energetic resonance between the peripheral organ and the brain. Design • 19 channels of electroencephalogram, 1 electrocardiogram, and 2 channels of electro-oculogram were recorded from 22 subjects who focused their attention on their heartbeats or eye movements, with and without kinesthetic (touch) biofeedback to increase somatic awareness. Results • Analyses of the electroencephalogram synchronized with the electrocardiogram revealed significant effects for heart-focused attention, primarily with touch biofeedback, following the contraction of the ventricles (possibly reflecting increased baroreceptor and somatosensory feedback); and significant effects for heart-focused attention, with and without touch biofeedback, preceding the contraction of the ventricles (possibly reflecting direct electromagnetic interactions between the heart and the brain). Conclusions • These findings suggest that energetic and physiological mechanisms may be involved in techniques in which the goal is to promote mind-body integration and health.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Baldwin, C. M., Hardin, E. E., Klimas, N. G., Kline, J. P., Patarca, R., & Song, Z. (1997). Individual differences in neural sensitization and the role of context in illness from low-level environmental chemical exposures. Environmental Health Perspectives, 105(SUPPL. 2), 457-466.
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  PMID: 9167980;PMCID: PMC1469822;Abstract: This paper summarizes the clinical phenomenology of multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), outlines the concepts and evidence for the olfactory-limbic, neural sensitization model for MCS, and discusses experimental design implication of the model for exposure-related research. Neural sensitization if the progressive amplification of responsivity by the passage of time between repeated, intermittent exposures. Initiation of sensitization may require single toxic or multiple subtoxic exposures, but subsequent elicitation of sensitized responses can involve low or nontoxic levels. Thus, neural sensitization could account for the ability of low levels of environmental chemicals to elicit clinically severe, adverse reactions in MCS. Different forms of sensitization include limbic kindling of seizures (compare temporal lobe epilepsy and simple partial seizures) and time-dependent sensitization of behavioral, neurochemical, immunological, and endocrinological variables. Sensitized dysfunction of the limbic and mesolimbic systems could account in part for many of the cognitive, affective, and somatic symptoms in MCS. Derealization (an alteration in perception making familiar objects or people seem unfamiliar or unreal) is a common MCS symptom and has been linked with limbic dysfunction in clinical neuroscience research. Sensitization is distinct from, but interactive with, other neurobiological learning and memory processes such as conditioning and habituation (compare adaptation or tolerance). In previous studies, hypotheses for MCS involving sensitization, conditioning, and habituation (adaptation) have often been considered in isolation from one another. To design more appropriate chemical exposure studies, it may be important to integrate the various theoretical models and empirical approaches to MCS with the larger scientific literature on individual differences in these potentially interactive phenomena.
• Bell, I. R., Walsh, M. E., Goss, A., Gersmeyer, J., Schwartz, G. E., & Kanof, P. (1997). Cognitive dysfunction and disability in geriatric veterans with self- reported intolerance to environmental chemicals. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, 3(3), 15-42.
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  Abstract: The symptom of sensitivity or intolerance to low levels of environmental chemicals (CI) is a characteristic of several clinical conditions, such as multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), fibromyalgia (FM), and the 'Persian Gulf Syndrome.' Lesser degrees of CI also occur in 15-30% of non-clinical populations. The present study examined the prevalence and concomitant health patterns of CI in elderly veterans in a VA primary care medical clinic (N = 160, primarily men). Thirty-seven percent of the sample endorsed the screening question asking whether or not they considered themselves 'especially sensitive to certain chemicals'. The group with CI reported a significantly higher rate of physical disability and increased susceptibility to becoming sick. The CI group reported significantly decreased rates of current cigarette smoking and alcohol use. Those with and those without CI did not differ in level of depression or in past occupational chemical exposures. However, the CI group scored significantly lower on a screening test for cognitive dysfunction, including a verbal memory performance pattern consistent with early dementia. When the groups were subdivided into individuals high and low in depression, the depressives without CI reported the highest rate of prior occupational exposure to pesticides. The subgroup who had both CI and depression performed most poorly on the attention/concentration screening test. Taken together, the data suggest that CI as a symptom is extremely common in older male veterans and may be a marker for increased risk of further cognitive decline and/or loss of functional independence. However, the role of occupational chemical exposures in initiating CI in these non-MCS patients is unclear and requires additional study.
• Lane, R. D., Reiman, E. M., Ahern, G. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Davidson, R. J. (1997). Neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness, and disgust. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(7), 926-933.
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  PMID: 9210742;Abstract: Objective: Happiness, sadness, and disgust are three emotions that differ in their valence (positive or negative) and associated action tendencies (approach or withdrawal). This study was designed to investigate the neuroanatomical correlates of these discrete emotions. Method: Twelve healthy female subjects were studied. Positron emission tomography and [15O/H2O were used to measure regional brain activity. There were 12 conditions per subject: happiness, sadness, and disgust and three control conditions, each induced by film and recall. Emotion and control tasks were alternated throughout. Condition order was pseudo-randomized and counterbalanced across subjects. Analyses focused on brain activity patterns for each emotion when combining film and recall data. Results: Happiness, sadness, and disgust were each associated with increases in activity in the thalamus and medial prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 9). These three emotions were also associated with activation of anterior and posterior temporal structures, primarily when induced by film. Recalled sadness was associated with increased activation in the anterior insula. Happiness was distinguished from sadness by greater activity in the vicinity of ventral mesial frontal cortex. Conclusions: While this study should be considered preliminary, it identifies regions of the brain that participate in happiness, sadness, and disgust, regions that distinguish between positive and negative emotions, and regions that depend on both the elicitor and valence of emotion or their interaction.
• Lane, R. D., Reiman, E. M., Bradley, M. M., Lang, P. J., Ahern, G. L., Davidson, R. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Neuroanatomical correlates of pleasant and unpleasant emotion. Neuropsychologia, 35(11), 1437-1444.
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  PMID: 9352521;Abstract: Substantial evidence suggests that a key distinction in the classification of human emotion is that between an appetitive motivational system associated with positive or pleasant emotion and an aversive motivational system associated with negative or unpleasant emotion. To explore the neural substrates of these two systems, 12 healthy women viewed sets of pictures previously demonstrated to elicit pleasant, unpleasant and neutral emotion, while positron emission tomographic (PET) measurements of regional cerebral blood flow were obtained. Pleasant and unpleasant emotions were each distinguished from neutral emotion conditions by significantly increased cerebral blood flow in the vicinity of the medial prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 9), thalamus, hypothalamus and midbrain (P < 0.005). Unpleasant was distinguished from neutral or pleasant emotion by activation of the bilateral occipito-temporal cortex and cerebellum, and left parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus and amygdala (P < 0.005). Pleasant was also distinguished from neutral but not unpleasant emotion by activation of the head of the left caudate nucleus (P < 0.005). These findings are consistent with those from other recent PET studies of human emotion and demonstrate that there are both common and unique components of the neural networks mediating pleasant and unpleasant emotion in healthy women.
• Neumann, J. K., Russek, L. G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Letter to the editor [1]. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59(5), 558-559.
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  PMID: 9316190;
• Reiman, E. M., Lane, R. D., Ahern, G. L., Schwartz, G. E., Davidson, R. J., Friston, K. J., Yun, L., & Chen, K. (1997). Neuroanatomical correlates of externally and internally generated human emotion. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(7), 918-925.
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  PMID: 9210741;Abstract: Objective: Positron emission tomography was used to investigate the neural substrates of normal human emotion and their dependence on the type of emotional stimulus. Method: Twelve healthy female subjects underwent 12 measurements of regional brain activity following the intravenous bolus administration of [15O]H2O as they alternated between emotion-generating and control film and recall tasks. Automated image analysis techniques were used to characterize and compare the increases in regional brain activity associated with the emotional response to complex visual (film) and cognitive (recall) stimuli. Results: Film- and recall-generated emotion were each associated with significantly increased activity in the vicinity of the medial prefrontal cortex and thalamus, suggesting that these regions participate in aspects of emotion that do not depend on the nature of the emotional stimulus. Film-generated emotion was associated with significantly greater increases in activity bilaterally in the occipitotemporoparietal cortex, lateral cerebellum, hypothalamus, and a region that includes the anterior temporal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampal formation, suggesting that these regions participate in the emotional response to certain exteroceptive sensory stimuli. Recall-generated sadness was associated with significantly greater increases in activity in the vicinity of the anterior insular cortex, suggesting that this region participates in the emotional response to potentially distressing cognitive or interoceptive sensory stimuli. Conclusions: While this study should be considered preliminary, it identified brain regions that participate in externally and internally generated human emotion.
• Russek, L. G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Feelings of parental caring predict health status in midlife: A 35-year follow-up of the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20(1), 1-13.
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  PMID: 9058175;Abstract: In the early 1950s, multiple-choice scores reflecting feelings of warmth and closeness with parents were obtained from a sample of healthy, undergraduate Harvard men who participated in the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. Thirty-five years later, detailed medical and psychological histories and medical records were obtained. Ninety-one percent of participants who did not perceive themselves to have had a warm relationship with their mothers (assessed during college) had diagnosed diseases in midlife (including coronary artery disease, hypertension, duodenal ulcer, and alcoholism), as compared to 45% of participants who perceived themselves to have had a warm relationship with their mothers. A similar association between perceived warmth and closeness and future illness was obtained for fathers. Since parents are usually the most meaningful source of social support in early life, the perception of parental love and caring may have important effects on biological and psychological health and illness throughout life.
• Russek, L. G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Perceptions of parental caring predict health status in midlife: A 35- year follow-up of the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59(2), 144-149.
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  PMID: 9088050;Abstract: Objective: This study examined how the perception of parental caring, obtained from undergraduates, relates to subsequent health over the ensuing 35 years. Methods: In the early 1950s, initial ratings of parental caring were obtained from a sample of healthy, Harvard undergraduate men who participated in the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. In a 35 year prospective, follow-up investigation, detailed medical and psychological histories and medical records were obtained. Results: Subjects identified in midlife as suffering from illnesses such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, duodenal ulcer, and alcoholism, gave their parents significantly lower ratings (p < .00003) on perceived parental caring items (loving, just, fair, hardworking, clever, strong) while in college. This effect was independent of subject's age, family history of illness, smoking behavior, the death and/or divorce of parents, and marital history of subjects. Furthermore, 87% of subjects who rated both their mothers and fathers low in parental caring had diagnosed diseases in midlife, whereas only 25% of subjects who rated both their mothers and fathers high in parental caring had diagnosed diseases in midlife. Conclusions: Since parents are usually the most meaningful source of social support for much of early life, the perception of parental caring, and parental loving itself, may have important regulatory and predictive effects on biological and psychological health and illness.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Information and energy in healthy systems: The soul and spirit of integrative medicine. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 13(4), 25-29.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1997). The challenge of one medicine: Theories of health and eight "world hypotheses". Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 13(3), 7-23.
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  Abstract: The challenge of creating one medicine will require the integration of a wealth of data and theories. In 1942, Stephen C. Pepper published a seminal book, World Hypotheses, that sought to explain how people create hypotheses about the world. Pepper proposed that there were four basic world hypotheses: (1) formistic (the hypothesis that nature exists as categories), (2) mechanistic (the hypothesis that nature obeys cause-effect relationships), (3) contextual (the hypothesis that processes in nature are relative and context dependent), and (4) organismic (the hypothesis that processes in nature reflect interactive relationships in systems). Most Western theories of health implicitly adopt one or more of these foundational hypotheses. The authors propose that there are four additional world hypotheses: (5) implicit process (the hypothesis that nature consists of invisible forces and information, such as energy and consciousness), (6) circular causality (the hypothesis that nature consists of circulating interactions that inherently change over time), (7) creative unfolding (the hypothesis that processes in nature reflect flexible designs or plans that have adaptive function), and (8) integrative diversity (the hypothesis that phenomena in nature reflect complex integrations of diverse processes). Many theories in mind-body medicine and complementary and alternative medicine implicitly adopt hypotheses 5 through 8. The task of developing a comprehensive theory of mind-body medicine in particular, and integrative medicine in general, may require the creative integration of all eight world hypotheses.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Russek, L. G. (1997). Dynamical energy systems and modern physics: Fostering the science and spirit of complementary and alternative medicine. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 3(3), 46-56.
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  PMID: 9141291;Abstract: When systems theory is carefully applied to the concept of energy, some novel and far-reaching implications for modern physics and complementary medicine emerge. The heart of systems theory is dynamic interaction: systems do not simply act on systems, they interact with them in complex ways. By definition, systems at any level (eg, physical, biological, social, ecological) are open to information, energy, and matter to varying degrees, and therefore interact with other systems to varying degrees. We first show how resonance between two tuning forks, a classic demonstration in physics, can be seen to reflect synchronized dynamic interactions over time. We then derive how the dynamic interaction of systems in mutual recurrent feedback relationships naturally create dynamic "memories" for their interactions over time. The mystery of how a photon (or electron) "knows" ahead of time whether to function as a particle or wave in the single slit/double slit quantum physics paradigm is potentially solved when energetic interactions inherent in the experimental system are recognized. The observation that energy decreases with the square of distance is shown not to be immutable when viewed from a dynamical energy systems perspective. Implications for controversial claims in complementary and alternative medicine, such as memory for molecules retained in water (homeopathy), remote diagnosis, and prayer and healing, are considered. A dynamical energy systems framework can facilitate the development of what might be termed "relationship consciousness," which has the potential to nurture both the science and spirit of complementary medicine and might help to create integrated medicine.
• Schwartz, G., Lane, R. D., Reiman, E. M., Bradley, M. M., Lang, P. J., Ahern, G. L., Davidson, R. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Neuroanatomical correlates of pleasant and unpleasant emotion. Neuropsychologia, 35(11).
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  Substantial evidence suggests that a key distinction in the classification of human emotion is that between an appetitive motivational system association with positive or pleasant emotion and an aversive motivational system associated with negative or unpleasant emotion. To explore the neural substrates of these two systems, 12 healthy women viewed sets of pictures previously demonstrated to elicit pleasant, unpleasant and neutral emotion, while positron emission tomographic (PET) measurements of regional cerebral blood flow were obtained. Pleasant and unpleasant emotions were each distinguished from neutral emotion conditions by significantly increased cerebral blood flow in the vicinity of the medial prefrontal cortex (Brodmann's area 9), thalamus, hypothalamus and midbrain (P < 0.005). Unpleasant was distinguished from neutral or pleasant emotion by activation of the bilateral occipito-temporal cortex and cerebellum, and left parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus and amygdala (P < 0.005). Pleasant was also distinguished from neutral but not unpleasant emotion by activation of the head of the left caudate nucleus (P < 0.005). These findings are consistent with those from other recent PET studies of human emotion and demonstrate that there are both common and unique components of the neural networks mediating pleasant and unpleasant emotion in healthy women.
• Szarek, M. J., Bell, I. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Validation of a brief screening measure of environmental chemical sensitivity: The chemical odor intolerance index. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17(4), 345-351.
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  Abstract: The development and validation of a brief self-report screening measure of environmental chemical sensitivity, the Chemical Odor Intolerance Index (CII), is described. Subjects included 1734 college students, 192 older adults, and 38 chemically intolerant and multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) patients. The results of the studies demonstrate that the CII has strong internal stability (Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0·80 to 0·92 across samples), and evidence of factorial, group, convergent, and discriminant validity is reported across diverse samples. In future research, the CII will permit the quantification of self-reported illness from low levels of environmental chemicals as a continuous rather than dichotomous variable. Consequently, the CII will facilitate the ability to compare and standardize subject selection criteria in both preclinical and clinical (i.e. MCS) populations. © 1997 Academic Press Limited.
• Bell, I. R., Miller, C. S., Schwartz, G. E., Peterson, J. M., & Amend, D. (1996). Neuropsychiatric and somatic characteristics of young adults with and without self-reported chemical odor intolerance and chemical sensitivity. Archives of Environmental Health, 51(1), 9-21.
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  PMID: 8629870;Abstract: The psychological, neuropsychiatric, and somatic characteristics of young adults who have different degrees of cacosmia (i.e., feeling 'ill' from the odor of xenobiotic chemicals) and who have self-described 'chemical sensitivity' were examined. A total of 800 college students completed the following: a self-rating scale for frequency of odor intolerance for 10 common substances, Simon Environmental Illness Symptom Survey, the SCL-90-R, Barsky Amplification Scale, Pearlin-Schooler Mastery Scale, Cheek-Buss and Kagan Shyness scales, Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and a health- symptom and physician-diagnosed checklist. Two pairs of groups were compared: (1) subjects in the top 16% (i.e., cacosmics) and bottom 15% (noncacosmics) of the sample with respect to odor intolerance scale scores; and (2) subjects from the entire sample who did (28%) or did not (72%) consider themselves to be 'especially sensitive to certain chemicals.' Cacosmics and the chemically sensitive subjects scored significantly higher on measures of psychological distress and amplification of somatic symptoms, but there was little evidence of lifestyle change, as assessed by the Simon Survey. Compared with their respective comparison groups, cacosmic and chemically sensitive groups had significantly higher incidences of illnesses associated with chemicals, alcohol intake, opiate drug use, and caffeine use, even after controlling for the psychological measures and histories of atopic allergy. Subjects with and without neuropsychiatric symptoms were differentiated with respect to chemical odor intolerance, but subjects with and without atopic allergies and possible autoimmune diseases were differentiated with respect to chemical sensitivity. Females were more cacosmic than males. Cacosmia is defined by a population subset, with or without occupational xenobiotic exposures or disability, that has distress and symptom amplification and neuropsychiatric and somatic symptoms, none of which are explained fully by psychological measures. Prospective clinical studies are possible with such individuals. The data are also consistent with a time-dependent sensitization model for illness from low-level chemical exposures.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Baldwin, C. M., & Hardin, E. E. (1996). Neural sensitization and physiological markers in multiple chemical sensitivity. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 24(1 II), s39-s47.
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  PMID: 8921554;Abstract: This paper summarizes the key features of the olfactory-limbic, neural sensitization model for multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) and presents relevant data on chemically intolerant human subjects from laboratory studies using quantitative electroencephalography, polysomnography, neuropsychological tests, cardiovascular measurements, and blood markers. MCS is a poorly understood chronic, polysymptomatic condition in which some prior controlled research studies have failed to find evidence to differentiate active from placebo tests. Closer examination of past MCS research, however, reveals that studies have failed to incorporate the design and methodological approaches necessary to test for nonimmunological sensitization. Time-dependent sensitization (TDS) is a well-documented phenomenon in the pharmacology literature involving the progressive increase in a given response by the passage of time between the initial and subsequent exposures to a substance or a stressor. As in MCS, multiple, chemically unrelated agents can trigger TDS. Females time-sensitize more readily than do males. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological (stress) stimuli can cross-sensitize. Dopaminergic pathways in the brain and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis are likely involved in TDS. Data on the symptomatology of MCS point to central nervous system involvement, including limbic regions that receive input from both olfactory (odor) and trigeminal (irritant) pathways. Limbic and mesolimbic brain regions are among the most sensitizable to repeated, intermittent environmental stimuli. Sensitizable individuals can show no difference or lesser responses to a test substance on initial exposure, but later exhibit much greater increases in responsivity on the next exposure after a period of days. For future research, it is essential to distinguish chemical intolerance symptoms such as derealization, sudden mood changes, musculoskeletal pain, menstrual dysfunction, and uncontrollable sleepiness from chemical phobia and avoidance behaviors. This model permits hypothesis-driven research on MCS and has major implications for interpretation of apparently positive and negative tests for "true" as opposed to "perceived" sensitivity to low levels of environmental chemicals. © 1996 Academic Press, Inc.
• Russek, L. G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1996). Narrative descriptions of parental love and caring predict health status in midlife: A 35-year follow-up of the harvard mastery of stress study. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 2(6), 55-62.
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  PMID: 8942044;Abstract: Perceived social support has been established as an important determinant of mortality risk. The perception of parental love and caring reflects the core of social support in the first 20 years of life. In the early 1950s, narrative descriptions of parents were obtained from a sample of healthy undergraduate men at Harvard University who participated in the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. In a 35-year prospective follow-up investigation, detailed medical and psychological histories and medical records were obtained. Subjects who had illnesses such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, duodenal ulcer, and alcoholism in midlife had used significantly fewer positive words to describe their parents (eg, loving, friendly, warm, open, understanding, sympathetic, just) while in college. This effect was independent of the subject's age, family history of illness, smoking behavior, marital history, and the death or divorce of the subject's parents. Furthermore, 95% of subjects who used few positive words and also rated their parents low in parental caring had diseases diagnosed in midlife, whereas only 29% of subjects who used many positive words and also rated their parents high in parental caring had diseases diagnosed in midlife. Because parents are usually the most meaningful source of love and caring for much of early life, the perception of parental love and caring may play a special role in promoting long-term health. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that love and caring play an important role in healing.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1996). Energy cardiology: A dynamical energy systems approach for integrating conventional and alternative medicine. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 12(4), 4-24.
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  Abstract: The conceptual chasm separating conventional medicine and alternative medicine can potentially be overcome by deriving hypotheses from modern systems theory and applying them to biophysical energy - what we call a dynamical energy systems approach. In this paper we present five such hypotheses, using the heart, the largest generator of electromagnetic energy in the body, as a model system. Living systems are defined here as dynamic organizations of intelligent information expressed in energy and matter. When the biophysical consequences of organized energy are considered, far-reaching implications for the role of the heart in health and healing unfold (for example, the heart, in concert with the brain, may be the major organizer and integrator of coordinated cellular functioning in the body). Procedures for measuring cardiac synchronized energy patterns are explained, and novel experimental predictions are illustrated (for example, that cardiac synchronized energy patterns may interact between people and be involved in certain therapies). Applications of energy cardiology hypotheses for conventional and alternative medicine are challenging, testable, and controversial. In the case of mind-body medicine, this approach both illuminates and expands the central role of the mind in health.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Bootzin, R. R., Davis, T. P., Hau, V., Ritenbaugh, C., Johnson, K. A., & Schwartz, G. E. (1996). Time-dependent sensitization of plasma beta-endorphin in community elderly with self-reported environmental chemical odor intolerance. Biological psychiatry, 40(2).
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  This study examined plasma beta-endorphin as a marker of the physiological stress response in community elderly who were either high (n = 15) or low (n = 15) in self-rated frequency of illness from environmental chemical odors. Individuals who report nonatopic multiple sensitivities to or intolerances for low levels of environmental chemicals also claim high rates of comorbid food sensitivities or intolerances. Subjects gave 9 AM blood samples for plasma beta-endorphin 90 min after ingesting either 1% fat cow's milk or a soy-based nondairy drink, on six different mornings in the laboratory after all-night sleep recordings. The six sessions-were divided into three sets of two successive days each, with each set [involving baseline (ad lib milk), nondairy (soy-based), and dairy diets] separated from the next by 3 weeks. In the chemically tolerant subjects, stably lower beta-endorphin levels suggested that milk may have been a physiologically less stressful beverage than was the soy drink. In contrast, the chemical odor intolerant group exhibited a) increased levels of plasma beta-endorphin averaged over the 6 days (p = .02); and b) marked fluctuations in endorphin from one laboratory day to the next (Group x Diet x Day interaction, p = .005). The findings were consistent with time-dependent, context-dependent sensitization of beta-endorphin in the chemical odor intolerant individuals.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Wyatt, J. K., Bootzin, R. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (1996). Slowed reaction time performance on a divided attention task in elderly with environmental chemical odor intolerance. The International journal of neuroscience, 84(1-4).
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  Previous research has suggested an association between the subjective report of illness from environmental chemical odors and poorer cognitive task performance in persons with industrial levels of xenobiotic exposures. The present study investigated baseline morning performance on a computerized divided attention task in active retired adults without occupational exposures or clinical disorders who nonetheless rated themselves currently high versus low in episodic illness from the odor of certain environmental chemicals. The chemically intolerant group showed slower reaction times in registering both centrally and peripherally placed stimuli, but no difference in making target tracking errors. Measures of negative affect did not account for these findings. Taken together with evidence for heightened neurobehavioral sensitization in this population, the data suggest disturbances in allocation of attention and related cognitive functions.
• Schwartz, G., Russek, L. G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1996). Narrative descriptions of parental love and caring predict health status in midlife: a 35-year follow-up of the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. Alternative therapies in health and medicine, 2(6).
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  Perceived social support has been established as an important determinant of mortality risk. The perception of parental love and caring reflects the core of social support in the first 20 years of life. In the early 1950s, narrative descriptions of parents were obtained from a sample of healthy undergraduate men at Harvard University who participated in the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. In a 35-year prospective follow-up investigation, detailed medical and psychological histories and medical records were obtained. Subjects who had illnesses such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, duodenal ulcer, and alcoholism in midlife had used significantly fewer positive words to describe their parents (eg, loving, friendly, warm, open, understanding, sympathetic, just) while in college. This effect was independent of the subject's age, family history of illness, smoking behavior, marital history, and the death or divorce of the subject's parents. Furthermore, 95% of subjects who used few positive words and also rated their parents low in parental caring had diseases diagnosed in midlife, whereas only 29% of subjects who used many positive words and also rated their parents high in parental caring had diseases diagnosed in midlife. Because parents are usually the most meaningful source of love and caring for much of early life, the perception of parental love and caring may play a special role in promoting long-term health. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that love and caring play an important role in healing.
• Bell, I. R., Hardin, E. E., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (1995). Increased limbic system symptomatology and sensitizability of young adults with chemical and noise sensitivities. Environmental Research, 70(2), 84-97.
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  PMID: 8674484;Abstract: We previously hypothesized that individual differences in (a) limbic system reactivity and (b) central nervous system sensitizability underlie vulnerability to environmental stimuli, not only in the controversial clinical condition multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), but also in the general population. Earlier research has shown overlaps in the characteristics of persons who report noise and air pollutant sensitivities. This study assessed questionnaire responses of 897 young adult college students who reported high versus low frequency of illness from several environmental chemical odors and concomitantly high versus low sensitivity to environmental noise. Subjects who reported increased rates of illness from chemical odors with or without noise sensitivity scored significantly higher (P < 0.0001) on a measure of limbic system symptomatology derived from ictal sensory, somatic, mnemonic, and behavioral manifestations of temporal lobe epilepsy. The group rating high both for illness from chemicals and for noise sensitivity had characteristics predictive of heightened sensitizability from the animal research on time-dependent sensitization (progressive response amplification to repeated, intermittent stimuli over time): i.e., higher female to male ratio (gender risk factor), increased rates of drug abuse problems in blood relatives (genetic risk factor), trait shyness (hyperreactivity to novelty), and increased carbohydrate craving. Despite the increased family histories of drug abuse and levels of personal anxiety and depression, the chemical- and noise-sensitive group reported the lowest rates of current smoking or personal drug abuse problems and the highest frequency of illness from drinking a small amount of alcohol. Taken together, the findings suggest that limbic system dysfunction associates more with chemical than with noise sensitivity; that individuals with both chemical and noise sensitivity may be the most sensitizable subset of the population for prospective studies, and that, in their substance use patterns, young adults with both chemical and noise sensitivity are more similar to MCS patients than are their peers with chemical or noise sensitivity alone.
• Bell, I. R., Peterson, J. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (1995). Medical histories and psychological profiles of middle-aged women with and without self-reported illness from environmental chemicals. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 56(4), 151-160.
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  PMID: 7713854;Abstract: Background: Cacosmia, which is a predictor of congnitive deficits in industrial samples, is a core symptom of several controversial syndromes. Previous studies of cacosmic populations have considered only psychiatric but not medical or family histories of identified patients. Method: This questionnaire survey study examined subjective characteristics of illness from chemical odors, sensitivity to chemicals, psychological and stress profiles, and medical, psychiatric, and family health histories of 28 middle- aged women with cacosmia in self-reported poor health attributed to chemicals (MCS), 17 controls with cacosmia in good health, and 20 normal controls without cacosmia in good health. Results: Those with MCS rated themselves in significantly poorer overall health with higher Pennebaker symptom scores, a larger number of chemical triggers, and greater frequency of illness from chemicals than the other two groups, even after controlling for variables on which the groups differed (i.e., education, Symptom Checklist-90 [revised] somatization, obsessive-compulsiveness, depression, anxiety, phobic anxiety, psychoticism, Barsky Somatic Symptom Amplification, and Cheek-Buss shyness). Despite increased levels of affective distress, those with MCS reported the greatest intolerance for alcohol and the lowest alcohol consumption. Conclusion: The data suggest that women with MCS report increased disability, multiple medical diagnoses including inflammatory and gynecologic dysfunctions, and psychological distress. The data are consistent descriptively with the phenomenology of somatization disorder. However, the persisting significance of group health rating differences after controlling for psychological variables, the lack of differences in life stress ratings between those with MCS and healty cacosmics, the later age at onset (60% after age 30 years), and the lack of excess family psychiatric histories in this sample of women with MCS suggest a potential role for an organic factor in the evolution of poor health in certain cacosmics.
• Lane, R. D., Kivley, L. S., Bois, M. D., Shamasundara, P., & Schwartz, G. E. (1995). Levels of emotional awareness and the degree of right hemispheric dominance in the perception of facial emotion. Neuropsychologia, 33(5), 525-538.
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  PMID: 7637851;Abstract: To examine correlates of individual differences in the degree of right hemispheric dominance in the perception of facial emotion, 51 medical students completed the Levy Chimeric Faces Test and an independent measure of differentiation and complexity in the processing of emotional information, the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale. A strong positive correlation was observed between the two measures, especially when variance due to verbal ability was removed and native English speakers only were included. These results suggest that as right hemisphere dominance in the perception of facial emotion increases, the ability to perceive complexity during the processing of emotional information increases. © 1995.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Hardin, E. E., Baldwin, C. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (1995). Increased limbic system symptomatology and sensitizability of young adults with chemical and noise sensitivities. Environmental research, 70(2).
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  We previously hypothesized that individual differences in (a) limbic system reactivity and (b) central nervous system sensitizability underlie vulnerability to environmental stimuli, not only in the controversial clinical condition multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS), but also in the general population. Earlier research has shown overlaps in the characteristics of persons who report noise and air pollutant sensitivities. This study assessed questionnaire responses of 897 young adult college students who reported high versus low frequency of illness from several environmental chemical odors and concomitantly high versus low sensitivity to environmental noise. Subjects who reported increased rates of illness from chemical odors with or without noise sensitivity scored significantly higher (P < 0.0001) on a measure of limbic system symptomatology derived from ictal sensory, somatic, mnemonic, and behavioral manifestations of temporal lobe epilepsy. The group rating high both for illness from chemicals and for noise sensitivity had characteristics predictive of heightened sensitizability from the animal research on time-dependent sensitization (progressive response amplification to repeated, intermittent stimuli over time): i.e., higher female to male ratio (gender risk factor), increased rates of drug abuse problems in blood relatives (genetic risk factor), trait shyness (hyperreactivity to novelty), and increased carbohydrate craving. Despite the increased family histories of drug abuse and levels of personal anxiety and depression, the chemical- and noise-sensitive group reported the lowest rates of current smoking or personal drug abuse problems and the highest frequency of illness from drinking a small amount of alcohol. Taken together, the findings suggest that limbic system dysfunction associates more with chemical than with noise sensitivity; that individuals with both chemical and noise sensitivity may be the most sensitizable subset of the population for prospective studies, and that, in their substance use patterns, young adults with both chemical and noise sensitivity are more similar to MCS patients than are their peers with chemical or noise sensitivity alone.
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Peterson, J. M., & Schwartz, G. E. (1995). Medical histories and psychological profiles of middle-aged women with and without self-reported illness from environmental chemicals. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 56(4).
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  Cacosmia, which is a predictor of cognitive deficits in industrial samples, is a core symptom of several controversial syndromes. Previous studies of cacosmic populations have considered only psychiatric but not medical or family histories of identified patients.
• Schwartz, G., Lane, R. D., Kivley, L. S., Du Bois, M. A., Shamasundara, P., & Schwartz, G. E. (1995). Levels of emotional awareness and the degree of right hemispheric dominance in the perception of facial emotion. Neuropsychologia, 33(5).
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  To examine correlates of individual differences in the degree of right hemispheric dominance in the perception of facial emotion, 51 medical students completed the Levy Chimeric Faces Test and an independent measure of differentiation and complexity in the processing of emotional information, the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scales. A strong positive correlation was observed between the two measures, especially when variance due to verbal ability was removed and native English speakers only were included. These results suggest that as right hemisphere dominance in the perception of facial emotion increases, the ability to perceive complexity during the processing of emotional information increases.
• Ahern, G. L., Herring, A. M., Tackenberg, J. N., Schwartz, G. E., Seeger, J. F., Labiner, D. M., Weinand, M. E., & Oommen, K. J. (1994). Affective self-report during the intracarotid sodium amobarbital test. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(3), 372-376.
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  PMID: 7929704;Abstract: Changes in internal affective state were investigated in patients undergoing the intracarotid sodium amobarbital test. It was found that when the left hemisphere was inactivated, patients rated their mood as significantly more negative than during baseline conditions. No significant change in affective state was observed during the inactivation of the right hemisphere. The findings are interpreted in terms of a differential lateralization model of emotion, in which the right hemisphere is more involved in the more powerful and salient negative affects.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Amend, D., Peterson, J. M., & Stini, W. A. (1994). Sensitization to early life stress and response to chemical odors in older adults. Biological Psychiatry, 35(11), 857-863.
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  PMID: 8054408;Abstract: This study examined the hypothesis that older persons who currently report illness from environmental chemical odors (cacosmia) may have experienced higher levels of stress early in life than did noncacosmic controls. The hypothesis derives from a time-dependent sensitization (TDS) model for cacosmia (Bell et al 1992) that predicts a relative interchangeability of stress and chemicals in inducing and eliciting sensitized responses in vulnerable individuals. Subjects were selected from those in the top 24% (cacosmic) and bottom 27% (noncacosmic) of a sample of 192 older adults (mean age 73.8 years) for self-reported frequency of illness from the odors of pesticide, car exhaust, paint, perfume, and new carpet. As in previous investigations, cacosmics were younger, more depressed, and more shy; cacosmics also included a higher proportion of women (83% versus 61%). As predicted, cacosmics rated themselves higher in stress for the first four decades of their lives, but not the recent past or present, even after controlling for depression, anxiety, hostility, shyness, age, and gender. Cacosmics reported increased prevalence of physician-diagnosed nasal allergies, breast cysts, hypothyroidism, sinusitis, food sensitivities, irritable bowel, and migraine headache. Only 4% of the overall sample (including 9% of the cacosmics) acknowledged the controversial physician diagnosis of "chemical sensitivity." The replicated observation of greater shyness in cacosmics is consistent with the ability of hyperreactivity to novelty to predict enhanced susceptibility to TDS from low levels of pharmacological agents in animals. The findings support a TDS model for cacosmia and suggest that cacosmia as a symptom identifies a large subset of the nonindustrial population with significant psychophysiological health problems that merit further objective examination. © 1994.
• Lane, R. D., Caruso, A. C., Brown, V. L., Axelrod, B., Schwartz, G. E., Sechrest, L., & Marcus, F. I. (1994). Effects of non-right-handedness on risk for sudden death associated with coronary artery disease. The American Journal of Cardiology, 74(8), 743-747.
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  PMID: 7942541;Abstract: The hypothesis that non-right-handedness is associated with sudden cardiac death was tested based on evidence that sympathetic imbalance may contribute to ventricular arrhythmogenesis and evidence that left-handers may have a shorter lifespan than right-handers. The study included 26 patients with coronary artery disease (CAD), a history of ventricular tachycardia-ventricular fibrillation (VT-VF), and implanted defibrillators, and 26 patients with CAD and no history of serious arrhythmias who were matched for age, sex, and New York Heart Association functional class. Patients with any history of neurologic disorders were excluded. Left-handers either wrote with the left hand or were converted from left- to right-handedness in childhood. Nonright-handers used the left hand for writing, drawing, or throwing. Handedness rates in patients with VT-VF and case-control subjects were compared with published norms in the general population to take expected rates into account. The rates of left-handedness (6 of 26 or 23.1%) and non-right-handedness (9 of 26 or 34.6%) in patients with VT-VF were significantly higher (p < 0.003 and p < 0.0001, 2-tailed, respectively) than those of similarly aged adults in the general population (left-handedness, 5%; nonright-handedness, 10.2%). The rates of left-handedness (2 of 26 or 7.7%) and non-right-handedness (4 of 26 or 15.4%) observed in the case-control group correspond closely to the expected values for that group (left-handedness, 1.3 of 26 or 5%; non-right-handedness, 2.65 of 26 or 10.2%) derived from the general population rates and were not significantly different from them. If these findings are confirmed in a prospective study, non-right-handedness should be considered a risk factor for sudden death in the context of CAD. © 1994.
• Schwartz, G. E., Bell, I. R., Dikman, Z. V., Fernandez, M., Kline, J. P., Peterson, J. M., & Wright, K. P. (1994). EEG responses to low-level chemicals in normals and cacosmics. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 10(4-5), 633-643.
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  PMID: 7778120;Abstract: Recent studies from the University of Arizona indicate that normal subjects, both college students and the elderly, can register the presence of low-intensity odors in the electroencephalogram (EEG) in the absence of conscious awareness of the odors. The experimental paradigm involves subjects sniffing pairs of bottles, one containing an odorant (e.g. isoamyl acetate) dissolved in an odorless solvent (water or liquid silicone), the other containing just the solvent, while 19 channels of EEG are continuously recorded. For the low-intensity odor conditions, concentrations are adjusted downward (decreased) until subjects correctly identify the odor bottle at chance (50%). The order of odorants. concentrations, and hand holding the control bottle, are counterbalanced within and across subjects. Three previous experiments found that alpha activity (8-12 hz) decreased in midline and posterior regions when subjects sniffed the low-intensity odors. The most recent study suggests that decreased theta activity (48 hz) may reflect sensory registration and decreased alpha activity may reflect perceptual registration. In a just completed experiment involving college students who were selected based on combinations of high and low scores on a scale measuring cacosmia (chemical odor intolerance) and high and low scores on a scale measuring depression, cacosmic subjects (independent of depression) showed greater decreases in low-frequency alpha (8-10 hz) and greater increases in low-frequency beta (12-16 hz) to the solvent propylene glycol compared to an empty bottle. Topographic EEG mapping to low-intensity odorants may provide a useful tool for investigating possible increased sensitivity to specific chemicals in chemically sensitive individuals.
• Bell, I. R., Martino, G. M., Meredith, K. E., Schwartz, G. E., Siani, M. M., & Morrow, F. D. (1993). Vascular disease risk factors, urinary free cortisol, and health histories in older adults: Shyness and gender interactions. Biological Psychology, 35(1), 37-49.
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  PMID: 8435451;Abstract: We studied relationships between shyness and health during a health screening survey of older adults (ages 50-88) living in an active retirement community in the southwestern United States (n = 232). As in previous studies of infants, older individuals with hay fever, insomnia and constipation were more shy than those without these problems. Shy persons overall showed higher sitting systolic blood pressure and a larger fall in orthostatic systolic blood pressure on standing; shy men had a greater prevalence of hypertension histories than did low-shy men. Shy subjects of both sexes had lower HDL cholesterol and higher triglycerides than did low-shy subjects; shy women tended to have higher LDL cholesterol than did low-shy women. In contrast with findings of elevated salivary cortisol in extremely inhibited children of both sexes, only shy women had higher 24 h urinary free cortisol excretion than did low-shy women; men showed the opposite pattern, possibly related to suppression of aggression. Shy men also tended to report a higher prevalence of thyroid disease history than did low-shy men (20% versus 6%). Notably, autoimmune thyroiditis has previously been linked with panic and depression, disorders which in turn have been associated with shyness. Taken together with previous work in shy children and their families, the data raise the possibility of (a) increased risk for arteriosclerotic vascular disease; and (b) increased risk of adrenal- and/or thyroid-related diseases in certain shy older adults. © 1993.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Peterson, J. M., & Amend, D. (1993). Self-reported illness from chemical odors in young adults without clinical syndromes or occupational exposures. Archives of Environmental Health, 48(1), 6-13.
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  PMID: 7680851;Abstract: The present survey of young adult college students investigated the prevalence of self-reported illness from the smell of the five following common environmental chemicals (cacosmia): (1) pesticide, (2) automobile exhaust, (3) paint, (4) new carpet, and (5) perfume. Sixty-six percent of 643 students reported feeling ill from one or more of the five chemicals; 15% identified the smell of at least four chemicals as making them ill. Ratings of illness from pesticide correlated weakly but significantly with ratings for the largest number of individual symptoms (9 of 11); daytime tiredness and daytime grogginess both correlated at high levels of significance with illness ratings (on a 5-point scale) for four of the five chemicals. The most cacosmic group (CS) included significantly more women (79%) than the noncacosmic group (NS) (49%); women overall were more cacosmic than men (p < .001), even with the significant covariate of depression. Ratings of cacosmia correlated only weakly with scores for depression (r = 0.16), anxiety (r = 0.08), and trait shyness (r = 0.18) in the total sample. On stepwise multiple regression with cacosmia score as the dependent measure, shyness accounted for 5.8% of the variance, while depression, anxiety, sense of mastery, and repression did not enter the equation. Histories of physician-diagnosed hay fever, but not asthma, were more frequent in the CS (16%) than in the NS group (5%). Without the confounds of chronic illness or specific treatment programs, these data are similar to patterns described clinically for a subset of patients with multiple chemical sensitivities (MCS), including previous data on increased nasal resistance in MCS. The findings also suggest a limited relationship between degree of self-reported cacosmia and trait shyness, possibly on the basis of limbic hyper-reactivity. Psychological variables did not otherwise account for any of the variance in self-rated illness from chemical odors in this nonclinical sample.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Peterson, J. M., & Amend, D. (1993). Symptom and personality profiles of young adults from a college student population with self-reported illness from foods and chemicals. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 12(6), 693-702.
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  PMID: 8294725;Abstract: Despite much debate over a presumptively somatic vs psychological etiology of nonatopic food and chemical sensitivities, little systematic research has addressed the issues. The present study investigated self-reported illness from several common foods (wheat, dairy, eggs) and chemicals (pesticide, car exhaust, paint, perfume, new carpet), symptom patterns, and psychological profiles of a sample of young adult college students (n = 490, age 19.4 ± 2.4, 52% female/48% male). Subjects were divided into 4 groups on the basis of sample medians for frequency of illness from the foods (FI) and chemicals (CI): high FI with high CI (FI/CI), high FI alone, high CI alone, and NOILL (low FI and CI). FI was associated with more defensiveness (denial of negativity) while CI was linked with more shyness (avoidance of novelty). Women outnumbered men in all groups (FI/CI: 61%; FI: 80%; CI: 55%) except the NOILL (40% women). Nevertheless, the FI/CI, FI, and/or CI groups still had significantly higher total symptom scores as well as more indigestion, headache, and memory trouble than did the NOILL group, even after depression, anxiety, shyness, defensiveness, and gender were covaried. The illness groups reported significantly more limitation of foods that mobilize endogenous opioids or generate exogenous opioids (sweets, fats, bread) as well as more illness from opiate drugs, small amounts of beverage alcohol, and late meals. Nasal symptoms from pollens or animals were more common in the FI/CI (42%) and CI (42%) than in FI (26%) or NOILL (28%) groups. Premenstrual tension syndrome and irritable bowel were also more common in the FI/CI group. The findings indicate that young adults outside the clinical setting who are relatively higher in FI and/or CI have distinctive symptom and psychological patterns. Covariate analyses suggest that important symptoms in FI and CI individuals such as indigestion, headache, and memory problems may occur in addition to rather than as simply part of emotional distress. The data are consistent with a previously hypothesized role of olfactory-limbic and hypothalamic pathways and with a time-dependent sensitization model for illness from foods and chemicals.
• Bell, I. R., Schwartz, G. E., Peterson, J. M., Amend, D., & Stini, W. A. (1993). Possible time-dependent sensitization to xenobiotics: Self-reported illness from chemical odors, foods, and opiate drugs in an older adult population. Archives of Environmental Health, 48(5), 315-327.
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  PMID: 8215596;Abstract: The present paper summarizes key features of time-dependent sensitization (TDS) in neuropharmacology (progressive amplification of behavioral, neuronal, endocrine, and/or immune responses to repeated intermittent exposures to an environmental agent or cross-sensitizing agents) as a possible model for cacosmia (subjective sense of feeling ill from low levels of environmental chemical odors) in nonindustrial and industrial populations; and extends previous cacosmia research in nonpatient populations to an elderly sample. This study examined the symptom and psychological profiles of 263 older adults (aged 60-90 y, 71% women, 29% men); 57% reported that at least one chemical and 17% reported that at least four of five chemicals (pesticide, automobile exhaust, paint, new carpet, perfume) made them feel ill. Cacosmia ratings correlated weakly and negatively with age (r = -0.19, p = .001) over the whole sample. Cacosmia correlated significantly with self- reported illness from foods that may mobilize or generate opioid peptides (wheat, dairy, eggs) (r = 0.32, p < .0001) and with illness from opiate drugs (r = 0.23, p < .0001). When the sample was divided into four cells on the basis of above- versus below-median total chemical-induced illness score (CI) and total food-induced illness score (FI), the high CI and high FI, high CI only, and high FI only groups had more frequent indigestion, and the high CI group had more frequent difficulty concentrating than the groups below median for illness from both chemicals and foods (NOILL), even after co-varying for age and anxiety. The most cacosmic subjects noted higher prevalence of physician-diagnosed allergies and irritable bowel than did noncacosmic subjects. In contrast with previous young adult cohort studies, the older illness groups did not differ with regard to sex distribution, depression, shyness, or repressive defensiveness. When considered with prior surveys of young adults, the present findings are consistent with the presence of previously established, time-dependent sensitization to multiple xenobiotic agents in susceptible individuals for whom psychological variables do not explain the symptom of cacosmia. If cacosmia is a symptom of TDS, then the neuropharmacology literature suggests the possibility of excitatory amino acid, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, dopaminergic, and/or opioid involvement. Prospective studies with objective measures testing the possible induction of TDS to specific chemicals are indicated.
• Kline, J. P., Schwartz, G. E., Fitzpatrick, D. F., & Hendricks, S. E. (1993). Defensiveness, anxiety and the amplitude/intensity function of auditory-evoked potentials. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 15(1), 7-14.
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  PMID: 8407437;Abstract: This study measured relationships between defensiveness, anxiety, and auditory-evoked potentials to tones of varied intensity. Subjects were designated as defensive if they scored ≥ 7 on the L-scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and high-anxious if they scored ≥ 11 on the N-scale. Four groups resulted: 'high anxious', 'defensive high anxious', 'repressors' (i.e., defensive low anxious) and 'low anxious'. Evoked potentials were recorded from FZ, CZ, PZ, C3, C4, T3 and T4, referenced to linked ears in response to 74, 84, 94 and 104 dB SPL tones. High-defensive subjects showed lower P2 amplitudes to the 94 and 104 dB tones and lower amplitude/intensity slopes at FZ, CZ, C3 and C4. High-anxious subjects showed lower P2 amplitudes to all four stimul lus intensities at FZ, CZ and PZ. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that defensiveness is associated with desensitization to intense or painful stimulation. © 1993.
• Levick, S. E., Lorig, T., Wexler, B. E., Gur, R. E., Gur, R. C., & Schwartz, G. E. (1993). Asymmetrical visual deprivation: a technique to differentially influence lateral hemispheric function.. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76(3 Pt 2), 1363-1382.
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  PMID: 8337093;Abstract: This article describes a contact-lens method to sustain asymmetry in visual deprivation and the use of this method to test the general hypothesis that asymmetry in input deprivation can shift activation balance in the integrated brain, differentially influencing lateral hemispheric function. Effects of asymmetrical visual deprivation were as predicted on lateral asymmetry of EEG theta, producing more theta over the deprived hemisphere. Cross-modal influence of such visual deprivation was found in the perception of pleasantness of odors. An interaction was found between side of visual deprivation and performance on verbal reasoning and spatial orientation tasks. A line-bisection test of visual attention was not sensitive to the effects. Fatigue as rated on the Profile of Mood States was greatest when the left hemisphere was deprived.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1993). Stress and social support may affect immune function. American Family Physician, 47(5), 1253-.
• Bell, I. R., Miller, C. S., & Schwartz, G. E. (1992). An olfactory-limbic model of multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome: Possible relationships to kindling and affective spectrum disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 32(3), 218-242.
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  PMID: 1420641;Abstract: This paper reviews the clinical and experimental literature on patients with multiple adverse responses to chemicals (Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Syndrome-MCS) and develops a model for MCS based on olfactory-limbic system dysfunction that overlaps in part with Post's kindling model for affective disorders. MCS encompasses a broad range of chronic polysymptomatic conditions and complaints whose triggers are reported to include low levels of common indoor and outdoor environmental chemicals, such as pesticides and solvents. Other investigators have found evidence of increased prevalence of depression, anxiety, and somatization disorders in MCS patients and have concluded that their psychiatric conditions account for the clinical picture. However, none of these studies has presented any data on the effects of chemicals on symptoms or on objective measures of nervous system function. Synthesis of the MCS literature with large bodies of research in neurotoxicology, occupational medicine, and biological psychiatry, suggests that the phenomenology of MCS patients overlaps that of affective spectrum disorders and that both involve dysfunction of the limbic pathways. Animal studies demonstrate that intermittent repeated low level environmental chemical exposures, including pesticides, cause limbic kindling. Kindling (full or partial) is one central nervous system mechanism that could amplify reactivity to low levels of inhaled and ingested chemical and initiate persistent affective, cognitive, and somatic symptomatology in both occupational and nonoccupational settings. As in animal studies, inescapable and novel stressors could cross-sensitive with chemical exposures in some individuals to generate adverse responses on a neurochemical basis. The olfactory-limbic model raises testable neurobiological hypotheses that could increase understanding of the multifactorial etiology of MCS and of certain overlapping affective spectrum disorders. © 1992.
• Lane, R. D., Wallace, J. D., Petrosky, P. P., Schwartz, G. E., & Gradman, A. H. (1992). Supraventricular tachycardia in patients with right hemisphere strokes. Stroke, 23(3), 362-366.
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  PMID: 1542897;Abstract: Background and Purpose: The physiological basis for the arrhythmias commonly observed after a stroke is not well understood. Based on evidence that the right and left cerebral hemispheres influence cardiac function in different ways, we sought to determine whether the nature and severity of cardiac arrhythmias in the context of an acute stroke vary in relation to whether the stroke is located in the left or the right hemisphere. Methods: Data were obtained from the medical records of nineteen patients with left hemisphere strokes and nineteen patients with right hemisphere strokes who had also had 24-hour electrocardiographic (Holter) recordings within 2 weeks of admission to a stroke unit. Written Holter monitor reports already on file were used for the data analysis. Results: All four patients with supraventricular tachycardia had right hemisphere strokes (p=0.05). There was a nonsignificant trend for left hemisphere stroke patients to have more severe ventricular arrhythmias. Conclusions: These data provide partial support for the hypothesis that the two cerebral hemispheres have a differential influence on the nature and severity of arrhythmias following an acute stroke. We speculate that parasympathetic tone was diminished ipsilateral to the affected hemisphere associated with a reciprocal rise in sympathetic tone on that side and recommend that a prospective study be undertaken to test this hypothesis more definitively.
• Meissner, M. D., Lane, R. D., Schwartz, G. E., Wallace, J. D., Petrosky, P. P., & Gradman, A. H. (1992). Arrhythmias and stroke laterality [5]. Stroke, 23(11), 1682-1683.
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  PMID: 1440725;
• Schwartz, G., Bell, I. R., Miller, C. S., & Schwartz, G. E. (1992). An olfactory-limbic model of multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome: possible relationships to kindling and affective spectrum disorders. Biological psychiatry, 32(3).
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  This paper reviews the clinical and experimental literature on patients with multiple adverse responses to chemicals (Multiple Chemical Sensitivity Syndrome-MCS) and develops a model for MCS based on olfactory-limbic system dysfunction that overlaps in part with Post's kindling model for affective disorders. MCS encompasses a broad range of chronic polysymptomatic conditions and complaints whose triggers are reported to include low levels of common indoor and outdoor environmental chemicals, such as pesticides and solvents. Other investigators have found evidence of increased prevalence of depression, anxiety, and somatization disorders in MCS patients and have concluded that their psychiatric conditions account for the clinical picture. However, none of these studies has presented any data on the effects of chemicals on symptoms or on objective measures of nervous system function. Synthesis of the MCS literature with large bodies of research in neurotoxicology, occupational medicine, and biological psychiatry, suggests that the phenomenology of MCS patients overlaps that of affective spectrum disorders and that both involve dysfunction of the limbic pathways. Animal studies demonstrate that intermittent repeated low level environmental chemical exposures, including pesticides, cause limbic kindling. Kindling (full or partial) is one central nervous system mechanism that could amplify reactivity to low levels of inhaled and ingested chemicals and initiate persistent affective, cognitive, and somatic symptomatology in both occupational and nonoccupational settings. As in animal studies, inescapable and novel stressors could cross-sensitize with chemical exposures in some individuals to generate adverse responses on a neurochemical basis. The olfactory-limbic model raises testable neurobiological hypotheses that could increase understanding of the multifactorial etiology of MCS and of certain overlapping affective spectrum disorders.
• Wexler, B. E., Warrenburg, S., Schwartz, G. E., & Janer, L. D. (1992). EEG and EMG responses to emotion-evoking stimuli processed without conscious awareness. Neuropsychologia, 30(12), 1065-1079.
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  PMID: 1484602;Abstract: Dichotic stimulus pairs were constructed with one word that was emotionally neutral and another that evoked either negative or positive feelings. Temporal and spectral overlap between the members of each pair was so great that the two words fused into a single auditory percept. Subjects were consciously aware of hearing only one word from most pairs; sometimes the emotion-evoking word was heard consciously, other times the neutral word was heard consciously. Subjects were instructed to let their thoughts wander in response to the word they heard, during which time EEG alpha activity over left and right frontal regions, and muscle activity (EMG) in the corrugator ("frowning") and zygomatic ("smiling") regions were recorded. Both EEG and EMG provided evidence of emotion-specific responses to stimuli that were processed without conscious awareness. Moreover both suggested relatively greater right hemisphere activity with unconscious rather than conscious processing. © 1992.
• Bonanno, G. A., Davis, P. J., Singer, J. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (1991). The repressor personality and avoidant information processing: A dichotic listening study. Journal of Research in Personality, 25(4), 386-401.
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  Abstract: The present research was designed to investigate the proposition that repressors, operationally defined by the conjunction of low anxiety and high defensiveness, are particularly adept at avoiding the processing of information when motivated to do so. Four groups of participants (nondefensive-low anxious, high anxious, repressors, and defensive-high anxious) were administered a dichotic listening task involving neutral or negative affective words presented in the unattended ear. Participants shadowed the material presented to the attended ear and simultaneously responded to a probe task presented on a video monitor. Results revealed that repressors made significantly fewer shadowing errors than high anxious and defensive-high anxious participants and marginally significantly fewer shadowing errors than low anxious participants for both neutral and negative words. High anxious participants, however, were later able to recognize the negative words that had been presented to the unattended ear at well above chance levels, whereas the recognition memory of repressors for such negative unattended words was at chance levels. In addition, repressors' responses to a postexperiment questionnaire indicated a significantly greater number of distracting thoughts during the experiment relative to other participants. Repressors, it seems, are indeed skillful at avoidant information processing and this capacity may well be related to the emotional memory deficits they have displayed in previous research. © 1991.
• Lane, R. D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1990). The neuropsychophysiology of emotion. Functional Neurology, 5(3), 263-266.
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  PMID: 2283100;
• Lane, R. D., Merikangas, K. R., Schwartz, G. E., Huang, S. S., & Prusoff, B. A. (1990). Inverse relationship between defensiveness and lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(5), 573-578.
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  PMID: 2327485;Abstract: Defensiveness (the tendency not to report unfavorable information about oneself), as measured by the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, has been shown to be inversely correlated with self-reported symptoms. In this family study of depression, direct interviews with 380 subjects combined with relatives' reports revealed a similar inverse relationship between defensiveness and lifetime prevalence of any psychiatric disorder, especially when diagnostic status was most certain and among those at greater risk for psychopathology. The authors conclude that the Marlowe-Crowne scale measures a factor or trait associated with the relative absence of psychiatric disorder, not the underreporting or denial of disorder.
• Lane, R. D., Quinlan, D. M., Schwartz, G. E., Walker, P. A., & Zeitlin, S. B. (1990). The levels of emotional awareness scale: A cognitive-developmental measure of emotion. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(1-2), 124-134.
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  PMID: 2231235;Abstract: The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS) is based on a new cognitive-developmental model of emotional experience. The scale poses evocative interpersonal situations and elicits descriptions of the emotional responses of self and others which are scored using specific structural criteria. Forty undergraduates (20 of each sex) were tested. Interrater reliability and intratest homogeneity of the LEAS were strong. The LEAS was significantly correlated with two measures of maturity: the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (SCT) of Ego Development, and the Parental Descriptions Scale-a cognitive-developmental measure of object representation. In addition, the LEAS correlated positively with openness to experience and emotional range but not with measures of specific emotions, repression or the number of words used in the LEAS responses. These findings suggest that it is the level of emotion, not the specific quality of emotion, that is tapped by the LEAS.
• Plante, T. G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1990). Defensive and repressive coping styles: Self-presentation, leisure activities, and assessment. Journal of Research in Personality, 24(2), 173-190.
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  Abstract: The purpose of this study was to (1) extend previous research demonstrating the positive self-presentation styles of defensive and repressive subjects; (2) investigate the types and amounts of exercise and hobby activities as possible coping mechanisms among repressors; and (3) compare the Marlowe-Crowne (MC) and the EPI Lie (L) scales as measures of defensiveness. Personality, life stress, exercise, and hobby questionnaires were administered to 110 male college students. A structured telephone interview was also conducted to assess the reliability of their exercise and hobby self-report information and to further refine the assessment of these variables. Overall, the results support the notion that defensiveness and repression are associated with positive self-presentation styles and with types and amount of time spent in leisure activities. The results support the notion that the MC scale and L scale should not be used interchangeably to assess defensiveness. It is hypothesized that the MC and L scales measure different levels and aspects of defensiveness. Directions for future research are discussed. © 1990.
• Schwartz, G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1990). Low-birth-weight effects of demographic and socioeconomic variables and prenatal care in Pima County, Arizona. The Western journal of medicine, 152(6).
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  Low birth weight is the major determinant of infant mortality. Continuing declines in infant mortality in the United States are due to the use of neonatal intensive care services; less progress has been made toward preventing low birth weight. I examined how the demographic, socioeconomic, and health services use variables affected rates of low birth weights in Pima County, Arizona, in 1985. Women at greatest risk of having the smallest infants were those younger than 21 years and those with fewer than 6 prenatal visits. Nulliparous women with fewer than 6 prenatal visits showed a still greater risk of having an infant of low birth weight. Women without medical insurance coverage had babies with the lowest mean birth weights, as well as significantly fewer prenatal visits. As the number of uninsured in the United States increases, the effect of lack of insurance among pregnant women becomes increasingly important. To prevent low-weight births, comprehensive maternity care services must be available to all pregnant women regardless of ability to pay.
• Weinberger, D. A., & Schwartz, G. E. (1990). Distress and restraint as superordinate dimensions of self-reported adjustment: a typological perspective.. Journal of personality, 58(2), 381-417.
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  PMID: 2213473;Abstract: Individual differences in distress and restraint have recently been validated as two superordinate dimensions of social-emotional adjustment (Weinberger, 1989). In two samples (N1 = 139; N2 = 136) of university students, scores on these dimensions were jointly used to define six higher order personality styles: reactive, sensitized, oversocialized, undersocialized, self-assured, and repressive. To evaluate this typology, group differences were investigated on 28 measures within seven domains related to adjustment: self-expression, emotional control, proneness to personality disorders, physical illness, self-concept, neurotic symptoms, and impulse gratification. One-way multivariate analyses of variance revealed significant group differences within each domain. Univariate analyses revealed significant differences on 26 of the 28 measures and marginally significant differences on the remaining 2. A large number of nonadditive patterns consistent with a priori group descriptions corroborated the utility of a person-centered, typological approach. The data also provided an empirically derived, prototypic description of each adjustment style.
• Lorig, T. S., & Schwartz, G. E. (1989). Factor analysis of the EEG indicates inconsistencies in traditional frequency bands. Journal of Psychophysiology, 3(4), 369-375.
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  Abstract: CNS activation, as measured by the EEG, has been assumed to be a unitary and homogeneous phenomenon which comprises shifts in the amount of activity in the alpha and beta frequency ranges. Factor analysis of EEG activity in the present study revealed a structure of EEG frequencies inconsistent with traditional EEG bands such as alpha and beta. Factors identified in this new structure correlated with a variety of self-report items and tended to simplify the relationship between self-report and traditional EEG bands. These results indicate that EEG arousal is heterogeneous and suggests that studies examining localized areas of high EEG activation must now account for the type of activity present in the area rather than changes along an arousal continuum.
• Warrenburg, S., Levine, J., Schwartz, G. E., Fontana, A. F., Kerns, R. D., Delaney, R., & Mattson, R. (1989). Defensive coping and blood pressure reactivity in medical patients. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 12(5), 407-424.
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  PMID: 2614819;Abstract: Two defensive coping styles, denial of illness and repressive coping, were studied in two groups of medical patients whose blood pressure (BP) was measured during a stress interview. Denial of illness was measured using the Levine Denial of Illness Scale (LDIS), and repressive coping was measured using a combination of the Marlowe-Crowne (MC) Social Desirability Scale and the SCL-90R anxiety subscale (ANX). Consistent with our prior research indicating that LDIS was associated with adaptive outcomes in the short run, high deniers manifested reduced systolic BP reactivity compared to low deniers. Although not related to repressive coping, systolic BP reactivity was correlated positively with MC and ANX separately. The results demonstrate that LDIS and MC measure different types of defensive coping. Current theories of the MC scale suggest two possible interpretations of the MC findings, one that focuses on avoidant coping and the second on attentional coping in high MC scores.
• Janner, L. D., Schwartz, G. E., & Leigh, H. (1988). The relationship between repressive and defensive coping styles and monocyte, eosinophile, and serum glucose levels: Support for the opiod peptide hypothesis of repression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 50(6), 567-575.
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  PMID: 2853404;Abstract: The opioid peptide hypothesis of repression (1) predicts that repressive coping is associated with increased functional endorphin levels in the brain, which can result in decreased immunocompetence and hyperglycemia. In a random sample of 312 patients seen at a Yale Medical School outpatient clinic, significant main effects of coping style were found for monocyte and eosinophile counts, serum glucose levels, and self-reports of medication allergies. Specifically, repressive and defensive high-anxious patients demonstrated significantly decreased monocyte counts. In addition, repressive coping was associated with elevated eosinophile counts, serum glucose levels, and self-reported reactions to medications. This behavioral immunologic, and endocrine profile is consistent with the opioid peptide hypothesis, which provides an integrative framework for relating the attenuated emotional experience of pain and distress characteristic of repressive coping with reduced resistance to infectious and neoplastic disease.
• Lorig, T. S., & Schwartz, G. E. (1988). Brain and odor: I. Alteration of human EEG by odor administration. Psychobiology, 16(3), 281-284.
• Lorig, T. S., Schwartz, G. E., Herman, K. B., & Lane, R. D. (1988). Brain and odor: II. EEG activity during nose and mouth breathing. Psychobiology, 16(3), 285-287.
• Davis, P. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1987). Repression and the Inaccessibility of Affective Memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(1), 155-162.
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  PMID: 3820068;Abstract: The fundamental assumption that repression involves an inaccessibility to affective memories has not been directly addressed in empirical research. In the present study we examined three groups of subjects (repressors, low anxious, and high anxious) under six conditions of recall (general, happy, sad, anger, fear, and wonder). Subjects were asked to recall personal experiences from childhood and to rate their current mood and the affective intensity of the memories. The results indicated that repressors recalled significantly fewer negative memories than did low-anxious and high-anxious subjects and, furthermore, that they were substantially older at the time of the earliest negative memory recalled. Compared with low-anxious subjects, repressors also recalled fewer positive affective memories as well. This pattern of findings is consistent with the hypothesis that repression involves an inaccessibility to negative emotional memories and indicates further that repression is associated in some way with the suppression or inhibition of emotional experiences in general. The concept of repression as a process involving limited access to negative affective memories appears to be valid. © 1987 American Psychological Association.
• Lane, R. D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1987). Induction of lateralized sympathetic input to the heart by the CNS during emotional arousal: A possible neurophysiologic trigger of sudden cardiac death. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49(3), 274-284.
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  PMID: 3602297;Abstract: A neurophysiologic mechanism for stress-induced cardiac arrhythmias is proposed based on the integration of two bodies of research that have until now developed independently: the role of hemispheric specialization in the mediation of emotional arousal and the role of a lateralized imbalance in sympathetic input to the heart in cardiac arrhythmogenesis. The specific hypothesis is that individuals who manifest more lateralized frontal lobe activity during emotional arousal may concomitantly generate more lateralized sympathetic input to the heart and be at increased risk for fatal cardiac arrhythmias. The theoretical background for the hypothesis is presented, empirical support for the hypothesis is reviewed, and implications for empirical research are discussed.
• Lane, R. D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1987). Levels of emotional awareness: A cognitive-developmental theory and its application to psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(2), 133-143.
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  PMID: 3812780;Abstract: The authors present a cognitive-developmental theory of emotional awareness that creates a bridge between normal and abnormal emotional states. Their primary thesis is that emotional awareness is a type of cognitive processing which undergoes five levels of structural transformation along a cognitive-developmental sequence derived from an integration of the theories of Piaget and Werner. The five levels of structural transformation are awareness of 1) bodily sensations, 2) the body in action, 3) individual feelings, 4) blends of feelings, and 5) blends of blends of feelings. The authors suggest applications of this model to current unresolved problems in psychiatric theory, research, and practice.
• Levine, J., Warrenburg, S., Kerns, R., Schwartz, G., Delaney, R., Fontana, A., Gradman, A., Smith, S., Allen, S., & Cascione, R. (1987). The role of denial in recovery from coronary heart disease. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49(2), 109-117.
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  PMID: 3575599;Abstract: This longitudinal study investigated the relationship between denial of illness and the course of recovery in patients with coronary heart disease. Using a newly developed interview instrument, the Levine Denial of Illness Scale (LDIS), the level and modes of denial were assessed in 45 male patients who were hospitalized for myocardial infarction or for coronary bypass surgery, of whom 30 were followed for 1 year after discharge. The reliability, internal consistency, and validity of the LDIS were found to be satisfactory. Furthermore, the LDIS showed discriminant validity from trait measures of denial. LDIS scores were not associated with severity of illness or risk factors. High deniers spent fewer days in intensive care and had fewer signs of cardiac dysfunction during their hospitalization relative to low deniers. However, in the year following discharge, high deniers adapted more poorly than low deniers: high deniers were more noncompliant with medical recommendations and required more days of rehospitalization. The findings suggest that denial of illness is adaptive during acute hospital recovery, but is maladaptive in the long-run after hospital discharge.
• Sirota, A. D., Schwartz, G. E., & Kristeller, J. L. (1987). Facial muscle activity during mood states: Differential growth and carry-over of elated versus depressed patterns. Psychophysiology, 24(6), 691-699.
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  PMID: 3438434;Abstract: Two groups of 14 women volunteers each read a standard set of 40 self-referent statements and engaged in imagery designed to induce moods of either elation or depression. Subjective ratings of emotion and facial muscle activity constituted the dependent measures. Feelings of depression as well as anger and sadness grew over time for Depression subjects, while feelings of happiness increased for Elation subjects. Elation led to increased zygomatic muscle activity while depression led to enhanced corrugator acitivity and slightly decreased zygomatic activity. Facial musle activity was correlated with subjective ratings primarily for Depression subjects. For these subjects, corrugator activity grew over time and carried over into non-imagery rest periods. In contrast, the increased zygomatic actitivity of Elation subjects returned to baseline during rest periods. The differential growth and carryover effects of the two mood states are discussed in terms of a positive psychobiological feedback loop which may serve to perpetuate depressive patterns of cognitive as well as somatic activity.
• Jamner, L. D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1986). Self-deception predicts self-report and endurance of pain. Psychosomatic Medicine, 48(3-4), 211-223.
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  PMID: 3704084;Abstract: This study sought to test predictions made from disregulation and systems theories regarding self-deception and pain responsivity. Sixty-four subjects completed the L-scale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory and, based on their scores, were categorized as either High, Medium, or Low Deceptors. Both sensory threshold and three levels of affective pain judgements were determined using electrocutaneous nociceptive stimulation applied to the forearm. Results indicated that there were no differences among groups in their sensation thresholds. However, large differences in affective pain judgements emerged between High and Low Deceptors. High Deceptors differed significantly from Low Deceptors at the Tolerance (9.4 vs. 5.2 mA, p < 0.001),Pain threshld (7.9 vs. 3.8 mA, p < 0.001), and Discomfort (4.4 vs. 2.2 mA, p < 0.01) judgement levels. These findings are consistent with a systems model of pain perception and are discussed in terms of the role of pain in mediating the relationship between cognitive coping patterns and recovery from illness and surgery. A possible opiate-peptide hypothesis of repressive coping & disregulation of pain is proposed.
• Warrenburg, S., Schwartz, G. E., Henderson, R., Crits-Christoph, P., & Nuzzo, P. (1986). Calcium, race, and hypertension.. Annals of internal medicine, 104(6), 892-893.
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  PMID: 3706945;
• Wexler, B. E., Schwartz, G., Warrenburg, S., Servis, M., & Tarlatzis, I. (1986). Effects of emotion on perceptual asymmetry: Interactions with personality. Neuropsychologia, 24(5), 699-710.
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  PMID: 3785657;Abstract: Perceptual asymmetry on a series of four specially constructed dichotic word tests was found to change as a function of the emotional quality of the words in the tests (P=0.05). This was most pronounced in the case of positively valued words which produced an increase in asymmetry consistent with facilitated left-hemisphere function (P
• Ahern, G. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (1985). Differential lateralization for positive and negative emotion in the human brain: EEG spectral analysis. Neuropsychologia, 23(6), 745-755.
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  PMID: 4080136;Abstract: The present experiment utilized EEG spectral analysis to investigate lateralization for emotional processes in the human brain. In frontal zones, a differential lateralization for positive and negative emotion was observed, with relative left-hemispheric activation (as measured by decreases in alpha abundance) for positive emotions and relative right-hemispheric activation for negative emotions. In parietal zones, a differential lateralization for verbal and spatial processes was observed, with relative left-hemispheric activation for verbal questions and relative right-hemispheric activation for spatial questions. Examination of EEG bands other than alpha (i.e. delta, theta, beta, and total power) suggested that emotional and cognitive processes are further distinguished by different EEG spectral patterns. © 1985.
• Fridlund, A. J., Schwartz, G. E., & Fowler, S. C. (1984). Pattern recognition of self-reported emotional state from multiple-site facial EMG activity during affective imagery. Psychophysiology, 21(6), 622-637.
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  PMID: 6514939;Abstract: A multivariate pattern-classification system was developed for the study of facial electromyographic (EMG) patterning in 12 female subjects during affect-laden imagery and for posed facial expressions. A parameter-extraction procedure identified the dynamic EMG signal properties which accorded the maximal degree of self-reported emotion discrimination. Discrimination analyses on trialwise EMG vectors allowed assessment of specific EMG-site conformations typifying rated emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear. The discriminability among emotion-specific EMG conformation was correlated with subjective ratings of affective-imagery vividness and duration. Evidence was obtained suggesting that the EMG patterns encoded complex, 'blended' reported affective states during the imagery. Classification analyses produced point-predictions of reported emotional states in 10 of the 12 subjects, and provided the first computer pattern recognition of self-reported emotion from psychophysiological responses.
• London, M. D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1984). The effect of activation versus inhibition of feedback on perceived control of EEG activity. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 9(2), 265-278.
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  PMID: 6509115;Abstract: This study explores a model in which perceived control is affected by multiple sources of feedback at three different stages of the control sequence - person, response, and outcome. Behavior that enhances feedback is termed activation, while behavior that diminishes feedback is termed inhibition. The study tests the hypothesis that activation at any stage of the sequence leads to greater perceived control than inhibition. Eighty subjects increased or decreased their brain-wave activity (EEG) by making a tone go either on or off, using either an active or a passive strategy. Following 10 60-second trials, subjects rated their perception of control over their EEG activity. The hypothesis that making a tone go on (activation of the outcome) leads to a greater perception of control than making the tone go off (inhibition of the outcome) was confirmed only when subjects decreased their EEG activity. Perceived control was not significantly correlated with actual control, supporting the expectation that they are separately mediated. The results did not support the hypothesis that increasing EEG activity or using an activity strategy would lead to a greater perception of control than decreasing EEG or using a passive strategy. These findings are interpreted as evidence that attention to feedback may be necessary for the predicted bias in perceived control to occur, and that activation and inhibition should be operationalized as the absolute presence versus absence of feedback in testing the hypothesis for the first two stages of control. © 1984 Plenum Publishing Corporation.
• Kristeller, J. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Black, H. (1982). The use of restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST) in the treatment of essential hypertension: Two case studies. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 20(6), 561-566.
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  PMID: 7159351;Abstract: The previous paper (Suedfeld et al., 1982, pp. 553-559) reported the use of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) in treating hypertension. This paper reports the response of two patients to 24 hr of a similar treatment offered as an adjunct to a weight-control program. In both patients blood pressure dropped immediately following the REST session and remained lower for up to 9 months. The initial drop in blood pressure was independent of weight loss. These results are interpreted in terms of a psychobiological model of self-regulation. © 1982.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1982). Psychophysiological patterning and emotion from a systems perspective. Social Science Information, 21(6), 781-817.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1982). Testing the biopsychosocial model: The ultimate challenge facing behavioral medicine?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50(6), 1040-1053.
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  PMID: 7174971;
• Sirota, A. D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1982). Facial muscle patterning and lateralization during elation and depression imagery. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91(1), 25-34.
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  PMID: 7056939;Abstract: 26 18-30 yr old female Ss read a standard set of self-referent statements and imagined scenes with elated, depressed, and neutral content. The dependent measures were subjective mood ratings (Self-Rating Depression Scale) and left and right zygomatic- and corrugator-muscle activity. The self-statements elicited feelings of elation and depression in approximately 70% of Ss. Among these Ss, elation was accompanied by immediate increases in zygomatic activity, especially on the right side of the face in pure right-handed Ss. Depression was accompanied by bilateral increases in corrugator activity that grew over time. In the remaining 30% of Ss who reported experiencing little or no subjective differences between the elation and depression self-statements, similar though smaller facial patterns of zygomatic and corrugator activity were found that reliably differentiated the affective conditions. Data support the hypothesis that facial EMG patterning is a sensitive psychophysiological indicator of mood. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1982 American Psychological Association.
• Davidson, R. J., Horowitz, M. E., Schwartz, G. E., & Goodman, D. M. (1981). Lateral differences in the latency between finger tapping and the heart beat. Psychophysiology, 18(1), 36-41.
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  PMID: 7465726;Abstract: Based upon suggestions that the two cerebral hemispheres may be differentially involved in the perception and regulation of autonomic activity, three studies were designed to explore differences in the relationship between left versus right hand finger tapping and the heartbeat. In each study, right-handed subjects were asked to tap with either their left versus right forefingers regularly at the rate of approximately once per second. When the time from the R-spike immediately preceding their tap to the tap was examined, a significant difference between the two hands was obtained in two of the studies, with the left hand tapping closer to the last R-spike compared with the right. A variety of additional conditions in the experiments suggest that this effect may depend upon tapping rhythmically. The implications of these findings for the differential role of the left and right hemispheres in the perception and regulation of cardiac activity are considered.
• Rhodes, D. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (1981). Lateralized sensitivity to vibrotactile stimulation: Individual differences revealed by interaction of threshold and signal detection tasks. Neuropsychologia, 19(6), 831-835.
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  PMID: 7329531;Abstract: Left index fingers exhibited lower method of limits thresholds; however, signal detection revealed that some subjects were more sensitive on the right, others on the left, while others were equisensitive. For some individuals, lateralization occurs at a level of processing fundamental to both tasks, while for others lateralization varies as a function of tasks. © 1981.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1981). A systems analysis of psychobiology and behavior therapy. Implications for behavioral medicine. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 36(3-4), 159-184.
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  PMID: 7048388;
• Schwartz, G. E., Weinberger, D. A., & Singer, J. A. (1981). Cardiovascular differentiation of happiness, sadness, anger, and fear following imagery and exercise. Psychosomatic Medicine, 43(4), 343-364.
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  PMID: 7280162;Abstract: This study examined cardiovascular patterns following happiness, sadness, anger, fear, relaxation, and control imagery in 32 subjects while they were seated and while they exercised. Affective imagery was an effective strategy for inducing reliable patterns of systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate associated with particular emotional status. Anger, rather than fear, produced the greatest overall increases in cardiovascular measures and was distinctly opposite from relaxation. Anger differed from fear and all other conditions in terms of greater increases in diastolic pressure following imagery and greater increases in heart rate and slower recovery of systolic pressure following exercise. Sadness was unique in that systolic pressure and heart rate were virtually as high when subjects were still as when they were actually moving. Furthermore, sadness was the one emotional state that seemed to interfere with the cardiovascular adjustments normally associated with exercise. Implications of these findings for current biobehavioral models of emotion, including the role that specific emotions may play in the pathogenesis and treatment of cardiovascular disease, are considered.
• Brown, S. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (1980). Relationships between facial electromyography and subjective experience during affective imagery. Biological Psychology, 11(1), 49-62.
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  PMID: 7248403;Abstract: Sixty subjects were exposed for 40 s each to 48 imagery situations designed to reflect happy, sad, angry and fearful conditions. Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity from zygomatic, corrugator, masseter and lateral frontalis muscle regions was recorded, and experienced emotion was measured on a scale tapping these four emotions. Results showed that: (1) zygomatic activity reliably differentiated happy imagery, corrugator activity reliably differentiated sad imagery, but masseter activity did not differentiate angry imagery and lateral frontalis activity did not differentiate fearful imagery; (2) different intensities of specific emotional imagery situations evoked the expected differential patterns of self-report and EMG; (3) higher correlations between self-report and EMG for 'present', rather than 'future' ratings of experienced emotion emerged for positive affect only; and (4) the use of a standardized imagery scale, rather than the self-generated, personally-relevant affective situations used in previous studies, allowed for more sensitive measurement of the relationship between facial muscle activity and subjective experience of emotion during affective imagery.
• London, M. D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1980). The interaction of instruction components with cybernetic feedback effects in the voluntary control of human heart rate. Psychophysiology, 17(5), 437-443.
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  PMID: 7465713;Abstract: Two groups of 20 subjects were presented with either contingent or yoked feedback for heart rate increase and decrease. Subjects were instructed to either attend to their heart (attention instructions) or to increase their physiological activity (direction instructions). Half of each contingent group made the signal go on for HR increase (tone-on feedback) and off for decrease. The other half made the signal go off for increase (tone-off feedback) and on for decrease. It was found that direction instructions led to significantly better HR control than attention instructions for yoked but not for true feedback. For true feedback, tone-on led to HR increase, while tone-off interfered, leading to overall HR decrease. This did not occur for yoked feedback, suggesting the importance of contingent feedback in this effect. An additional finding of this study was that subjects' self-ratings of control were identical for true and yoked subjects, and did not correspond to their actual degree of control, suggesting that the feedback effects were mediated unconsciously. It was concluded that the direction component of HR instructions may obscure true cybernetic feedback effects which emerge through the manipulation of contingency and positive/negative feedback loops.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1980). Stress management in occupational settings. Public Health Reports, 95(2), 99-108.
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  PMID: 6767264;PMCID: PMC1415250;Abstract: A general introduction is presented to the problems and promise of stress management as applied to occupational settings. The challenge facing industry, labor, and science today is to design stress management programs that can be clinically and cost effective and then to carefully evaluate these programs in occupational settings through systematic research. The promise of positive results emerging from collaborative research in this area is substantial and should be pursued vigorously, despite the numerous problems in conducting such research. Clinical aspects of stress management are briefly discussed.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Weinberger, D. A. (1980). Patterns of emotional responses to affective situations: Relations among happiness, sadness, anger, fear, depression, and anxiety. Motivation and Emotion, 4(2), 175-191.
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  Abstract: Although emotion research and clinical practice often implicitly entail judgments about the patterns and situational appropriateness of a person's emotional reactions, we have little empirical knowledge of how emotions typically interrelate during various affective situations. To assess patterns of response to normative situations, a questionnaire was constructed and validated to include items primarily eliciting one of six emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, depression, and anxiety) and one of three intensities (low, moderate, and high). A total of 216 persons rated one of four forms of the questionnaire on each of the six emotional categories. Each of the six types of situations generated significantly different patterns of emotion. As Izard (1972) predicted, depression situations elicited more complex patterns of emotion than sadness situations, including significantly more anger, fear, and anxiety. In contrast, anxiety situations did not elicit more complex patterns than fear situations. Rather, the evidence was more consistent with the conclusion that fear is a particular type of anxiety. Various other relations among specific emotions are discussed, as well as some subtle sex differences and intensity effects. The data highlight the sensitivity with which the assessment of patterns of emotions associated with specific situations can produce new information about the nature of affective experience. © 1980 Plenum Publishing Corporation.
• Schwartz, G. E., Brown, S. L., & Ahern, G. L. (1980). Facial muscle patterning and subjective experience during affective imagery: Sex differences. Psychophysiology, 17(1), 75-82.
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  PMID: 7355191;Abstract: Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity was recorded from the zygomatic, corrugator, masseter and frontalis muscle regions in 30 male and 30 female subjects. Forty-eight items were selected to reflect happy, sad, angry and fearful situations. Subjects imagined each of the items for 40 sec and rated how they felt on a scale tapping the four emotions. The results indicated that for certain emotions, muscle regions and ratings, females (as compared to males): 1) generated facial EMG patterns of greater magnitude (relative to rest) during affective imagery, 2) reported a stronger experience of emotion to the imagery, 3) showed greater within-subject correlations between the experience of emotions and facial EMG, 4) evidenced somewhat higher corrugator and significantly lower masseter EMG activity during rest, and 5) generated greater facial EMG changes during a post-imagery, voluntary facial expression condition. Cultural and biological interpretations of the data are considered. The importance of evaluating gender in psychophysiological studies of emotion is stressed.
• Ahern, G. L., & Schwartz, G. E. (1979). Differential lateralization for positive versus negative emotion. Neuropsychologia, 17(6), 693-698.
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  PMID: 522984;Abstract: Lateral eye movements were recorded in response to 60 reflective questions designed to manipulate (1) verbal/spatial requirements and (2) affective tone. Positive emotion questions evoked movements suggestive of relative left hemisphere involvement, while negative emotion questions evoked movements suggestive of relative right hemisphere involvement. Verbal/spatial effects emerged only in a subgroup of subjects showing bidirectional eye movement responses under these conditions. Lateralization effects for approach vs avoidance responding (and their accompanying emotional states) may be more fundamental than the higher cognitive verbal/ spatial dichotomy. © 1979.
• Brenner, M., Branscomb, H. H., & Schwartz, G. E. (1979). Psychological stress evaluator. Two tests of a vocal measure. Psychophysiology, 16(4), 351-357.
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  PMID: 461663;
• Brown, S. -., Sweeney, D. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (1979). Differences between self-reported and observed pleasure in depression and schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 167(7), 410-415.
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  PMID: 448344;Abstract: Observer ratings of positive affect and self-ratings of pleasurable experience were collected daily on 6 schizophrenic and 5 depressed inpatients during baseline medication-free periods ranging from 11 to 27 days. Schizophrenics were observed to display significantly higher degrees of positive affect than depressed patients, but they reported significantly lower degrees of experienced pleasure. Depressed patients, conversely, were observed to demonstrate significantly lower degrees of positive affect than schizophrenics, but they reported significantly higher degrees of experienced pleasure. These results have important implications for the further specification of mechanisms underlying abnormalities in pleasure associated with psychiatric disorders.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1979). Biofeedback and the behavioral treatment of disorders of disregulation. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 52(6), 581-596.
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  PMID: 395767;PMCID: PMC2595798;Abstract: This paper reviews biofeedback research from the perspective of cybernetic/feedback theory and applies the theory to the behavioral treatment of psychosomatic disorders. The concept of disregulation is used to elucidate how environmental factors can modulate the central nervous system and effect homeostatic, selfregulatory control of peripheral organs. When feedback from peripheral organs is disrupted, it is hypothesized that disregulation occurs, leading to physiological instability and functional disease. Within this framework, biofeedback provides a new feedback loop that can help individuals regain physiologically selfcontrol. Basic research using biofeedback to enhance self-regulation of cardiovascular responses is reviewed. The use of biofeedback in the behavioral treatment of disorders such as tension and migraine headache, hypertension, and epilepsy are selectively reviewed and critically evaluated. The need to consider feedback mechanisms in behavioral and biomedical approaches to treatment is highlighted. Predictions regarding the potential inadvertent perpetuation of disregulation and disease through inappropriate biomedical intervention is also considered.
• Schwartz, G. E., Ahern, G. L., & Brown, S. L. (1979). Lateralized facial muscle response to positive and negative emotional stimuli. Psychophysiology, 16(6), 561-571.
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  PMID: 515297;Abstract: Facial electromyography (EMG) was recorded from left and right zygomatic and corrugator muscle regions in response to reflective questions and during voluntary facial expressions. Both muscle regions showed consistent responses to five emotions (happiness, excitement, neutral, sadness, and fear) evoked in the involuntary condition (i.e. reflective questions) and four emotional facial expressions (happiness, excitement, sadness, and fear) self-generated in the voluntary conditon. Lateralized responses were found for the zygomatic muscle in the involuntary condition: positive emotion questions elicited relatively greater right muscle activity than left muscle activity, while negative emotion questions elicited relatively greater left muscle activity than right muscle activity. Lateralized responses were found for the corrugator muscle in the voluntary condition, but were not significantly related to type of emotional expression. Sex differences indicating greater lateralization for females were found in some of the measures. The results are consistent with the hypothesized specialization of the left and right cerebral hemispheres for the mediation of positive and negative emotions, respectively.
• Schwartz, G. E., Shapiro, A. P., Redmond, D. P., Ferguson, D. C., Ragland, D. R., & Weiss, S. M. (1979). Behavioral medicine approaches to hypertension: An integrative analysis of theory and research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 2(4), 311-363.
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  PMID: 398408;Abstract: This article compares behavioral and biological approaches to hypertension, highlights some of the practical, semantic, and theoretical issues involved, and attempts a constructive, behavioral medicine integration of these approaches. The major behavioral approaches to hypertension are described, with a focus on their conceptual limitations as stimulants to research into psychobiological mechanisms. A biobehavioral systems analysis of hypertension is outlined, emphasizing the role of the central nervous system as a common pathway relating environmental and behavioral factors to cardiovascular regulatory dyamics and disease. Schwartz's concept of blood pressure disregulation is discussed, by which behavioral 'feedback loops' may be included in the pathogenesis of homeostatic disorders. A detailed discussion of concepts underlying the clinical pharmacological approach to hypertension is provided; parallels are drawn between the conceptual framework and the theoretical and practical questions facing behavioral researchers concerned with hypertension. Synergistic interactive effects of drug and behavioral treatments are proposed. A biobehavioral overview, which links pressor and depressor stimulus patterns to both pathogenesis and therapy, can serve to integrate the previous biobehavioral systems analysis, the conceptual framework of clinical pharmacology, and the notion of biobehavioral disregulation of blood pressure. Implications for future behavioral medicine research in hypertension are provided.
• Weinberger, D. A., Schwartz, G. E., & Davidson, R. J. (1979). Low-anxious, high-anxious, and repressive coping styles: Psychometric patterns and behavioral and physiological responses to stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88(4), 369-380.
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  PMID: 479459;Abstract: A long-standing problem in stress research has been that individuals' reports of their tendencies to become anxious are often inconsistent with relevant behavioral and physiological indices. This study investigated the distinction between (a) truly low-anxious Ss, who report low trait anxiety on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and low defensiveness on the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and (b) repressors, who report low anxiety but high defensiveness. These groups were compared with a moderately high-anxious one. Heart rate, spontaneous skin resistance responses, and forehead muscle tension were recorded from 40 male college students during a phrase association task. Significant differences in the 3 physiological measures as well as in 3 behavioral ones (reaction time, content avoidance, and verbal interference) all indicated that the repressors were more stressed than the low-anxious Ss despite their claims of lower trait anxiety. The high-anxious group exhibited a 3rd pattern suggesting an intermediate level of anxious responding. These data document the need to distinguish between repressors and truly low-anxious persons in research concerned with relations between self-reported anxiety and behavioral and physiological responses to stress. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1979 American Psychological Association.
• Brown, S. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Sweeney, D. R. (1978). Dissociation of self-reported and observed pleasure in depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 40(7), 536-548.
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  PMID: 740841;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Weiss, S. M. (1978). Behavioral medicine revisited: An amended definition. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 1(3), 249-251.
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  PMID: 755861;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Weiss, S. M. (1978). Yale conference on behavioral medicine: A proposed definition and statement of goals. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 1(1), 3-12.
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  PMID: 45369;
• Schwartz, G. E., Davidson, R. J., & Goleman, D. J. (1978). Patterning of cognitive and somatic processes in the self-regulation of anxiety: Effects of meditation versus exercise. Psychosomatic Medicine, 40(4), 321-328.
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  PMID: 356080;Abstract: Davidson and Schwartz have proposed a psychobiological analysis of anxiety that emphasizes the patterning of multiple processes in the generation and self-regulation of this state. The present article specifically reviews recent research on cognitive and somatic components of anxiety. A dual component scale which separately assesses cognitive and somatic trait anxiety is described and applied to the study of the differential effects of a somatic (physical exercise) and a cognitive (meditation) relaxation procedure. A total of 77 subjects was employed; 44 regularly practiced physical exercise and 33 regularly practiced meditation for comparable periods of time. As predicted, subjects practicing physical exercise reported relatively less somatic and more cognitive anxiety than meditators. These data suggest that specific subcomponents of anxiety may be differentially associated with relaxation techniques engaging primarily cognitive versus somatic subsystems. It is proposed that relaxation consists of a generalized reduction in multiple physiological systems (termed the relaxation response by Benson) and a more specific pattern of changes superimposed upon this general reduction, which is elicited by the particular technique employed. The data from this retrospective study need to be followed up by prospective studies to establish the precise mechanisms for these effects.
• Schwartz, G., Fair, P. L., Mandel, M. R., Salt, P., Mieske, M., & Klerman, G. L. (1978). Facial electromyography in the assessment of improvement in depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 40(4), 355-360.
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  PMID: 684137;Abstract: Depressed patients who showed decreases in resting corrugator muscle tension levels, as measured electromyographically, also showed improvement in clinical symptoms, as assessed by the Hamilton Psychiatric Rating Scale over a 2-week period. Patients showing good clinical improvement after 2 weeks had resting pretreatment corrugator levels higher than those showing little clinical improvement, suggesting that corrugator activity might also serve as a forecaster of subsequent change. These findings support Darwin's 1872 hypothesis concerning the role of the 'grief' muscle in depression. Furthermore, psychophysiological recording of patterns of facial muscle activity may have value in the clinical assessment of depression and treatment effects.
• Shapiro, A. P., Schwartz, G. E., Redmond, D. P., Ferguson, D. C., & Weiss, S. M. (1978). Non-pharmacologic treatment of hypertension.. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 304, 222-235.
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  PMID: 360918;
• Davidson, R. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1977). Brain mechanisms subserving self-generated imagery: Electrophysiological specificity and patterning. Psychophysiology, 14(6), 598-602.
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  PMID: 928612;Abstract: The present study was designed to assess the patterning of occipital and sensorimotor EEG activation during self-generated visual and kinesthetic imagery. Twenty subjects were requested to imagine, in separate trials, a flashing light, a tapping sensation on the right forearm, and both the light and the tapping together. Prior to the imagery trials, subjects were exposed to the stimuli which they were asked to subsequently imagine. EEG was recorded from the left occipital and left sensorimotor regions, filtered for alpha and quantified on-line. The results indicated that self-generated visual imagery elicited greater relative occipital activation than comparable kinesthetic imagery. The imagine-both condition fell predictably in between the two unimodal imagery conditions. The difference between visual and kinesthetic imagery was primarily a function of greater occipital activation during the former versus the latter task. No difference in overall alpha abundance among the three imagery tasks was found. These findings suggest that the self-generation of imagery in different modalities elicits specific changes in the sensory regions of the brain responsible for processing information in the relevant modalities.
• Davidson, R. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1977). The influence of musical training on patterns of EEG asymmetry during musical and non musical self generation tasks. Psychophysiology, 14(1), 58-63.
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  PMID: 834803;Abstract: Musically proficient and non proficient right handed subjects were requested to list in a preexperimental questionnaire three familiar songs, whose words and melody were well known. They were then instructed in two separate experiments, to whistle the melody of a song, talk the lyrics in a song, or sing a song each for 3 1 min trials performed with eyes closed. EEG was recorded from the left and right occipital areas (O1 and O2) in Experiment I and from the left and right parietal areas (P3 and P4) in Experiment II, and filtered for 8-13 Hz activity on line. Comparable results were obtained in both experiments and indicated that non musically trained subjects show significantly greater relative right hemisphere activation while whistling the melody of a song vs talking the lyrics to a song. Musically trained subjects show no differences in EEG asymmetry between these tasks. In addition, there were no group differences in asymmetry during the talking and singing conditions. These data are consistent with recent evidence suggesting that musical training is associated with the adoption of an analytic and sequential processing mode toward melodic information, and suggest that long term training in complex cognitive skills has functional neural concomitants.
• Feuerstein, M., & Schwartz, G. E. (1977). Training in clinical psychophysiology. Present trends and future goals.. The American psychologist, 32(7), 560-567.
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  PMID: 889161;
• Schwartz, G. E. (1977). Biofeedback and cardiovascular self-regulation: neurophysiological mechanisms.. Progress in Brain Research, 47, 317-328.
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  PMID: 337353;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Weiss, S. M. (1977). What is behavioral medicine?. Psychosomatic Medicine, 39(6), 377-381.
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  PMID: 594283;
• Shapiro, A. P., Schwartz, G. E., & Ferguson, D. C. (1977). Behavioral methods in the treatment of hypertension. A review of their clinical status. Annals of Internal Medicine, 86(5), 626-636.
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  PMID: 322566;Abstract: Behavioral methods to lower blood pressure include biofeedback, relaxation, psychotherapy, suggestion and placebo, and environmental modification. Reported data for each method have been examined applying the clinical pharmacologic format used to study other therapeutic agents. Most studies have been Phase 1 type, small numbers of subjects in acute (short term) treatment situations. Phase 2 studies, controlled trials with comparison with known effective agents, are sparse, and Phase 3 studies are not yet appropriate. These Phase 1 studies indicate blood pressure effects that are small, with minimal data about their duration and their relation to the use of pharmacologic agents. The methods are adjunctive and not alternative, while the compliance problem is similar to that with pharmacologic agents. The major differences between the methods are the ease with which they can be used. Widespread application of the nonpharmacologic methods cannot currently be recommended, but further basic and clinical research into mechanisms and outcomes is encouraged.
• Shapiro, A. P., Schwartz, G. E., Ferguson, D. C., Redmond, D. P., & Weiss, S. M. (1977). Behavioral Approaches to the Treatment of Hypertension. Progress in Brain Research, 47(C), 309-316.
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  PMID: 337352;
• Davidson, R. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1976). Patterns of cerebral lateralization during cardiac biofeedback versus the self regulation of emotion: sex differences. Psychophysiology, 13(1), 62-68.
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  PMID: 1244632;Abstract: The purpose of the present study was 2 fold: to obtain information on central mechanisms underlying cardiac self regulation by comparing changes in cerebral asymmetry during self control of heart rate with changes observed during the production of affective imagery; and to explore sex differences in hemispheric function during performance of these 2 tasks. Heart rate (HR) and bilateral parietal EEG filtered for alpha were recorded from 20 right handed males and females during 2 discrete experimental phases: cardiac control and image self generation. HR showed significant effects between up versus down in prefeedback and feedback, and between anger versus relaxing imagery in the image phase. The EEG data indicated similar patterns of hemispheric asymmetry in both sexes during prefeedback. However, with the introduction of feedback, females shifted to greater relative right hemisphere activation comparable to what they show when specifically instructed to think emotional thoughts; males showed little differentiation between conditions. These data indicate that the self regulation of HR with biofeedback in males and females may be accomplished by the utilization of strategies involving different underlying patterns of neuropsychological processes.
• Davidson, R. J., Schwartz, G. E., & Rothman, L. P. (1976). Attentional style and the self-regulation of mode-specific attention: An electroencephalograhic study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85(6), 611-621.
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  PMID: 993459;Abstract: Assessed the cortical concomitants of selective mode-specific attention in Ss differing in the capacity for sustained attentional involvement. 10 high- and 10 low-scoring Ss on the Tellegen Absorption Scale were required to (a) simply attend to either a randomly flashing light or a randomly produced tapping sensation on the forearm during one block of trials and to (b) count the flashes and the taps during another trial block. The EEG was recorded from the left occipital and left sensorimotor regions and was filtered for alpha activity and quantified on line. Selective mode-specific attention produced reliable shifts in cortical patterning between kinesthetic and visual attention trials. During the counting condition, high-scoring Ss showed significantly greater specificity in cortical patterning than did low-scoring Ss. This difference was primarily a function of high-scoring Ss' ability to inhibit activation in the occipital region while counting taps. Findings suggest that high scores on the Absorption scale are associated with a flexible attentional style and that, given the requisite task demands, attentionally absorbed Ss show greater mode-specific cortical patterning during selective attention than do low scorers. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1976 American Psychological Association.
• Davidson, R. J., Schwartz, G. E., Pugash, E., & Bromfield, E. (1976). Sex differences in patterns of EEG asymmetry. Biological Psychology, 4(2), 119-137.
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  PMID: 1276303;Abstract: This paper reports three studies showing sex differences in EEG asymmetry during self-generated cognitive and affective tasks. In the first experiment, bilateral EEG, quantified for alpha on-line, was recorded from right-handed subjects while they either whistled, sang or recited lyrics of familiar songs. The results revealed significant asymmetry between the whistle and talk conditions only for subjects with no familial left-handedness within this group, only for females and not for males. In the second experiment, bilateral EEG was recorded while right-handed subjects (with no familial left-handedness) self-induced covert affective and non-affective states. Results revealed significantly greater relative right-hemisphere activation during emotion versus non-emotion trials only in females; males showed no significant task-dependent shifts in asymmetry between conditions. The third experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that females show greater percent time asymmetry than males during biofeedback training for symmetical and asymmetrical EEG patterns. Results confirmed this prediction as well as indicating that females show better control of such asymmetrical cortical patterning. These findings provide new neuropsychological support for the hypothesis of greater bilateral flexibility in females during self-generation tasks. © 1976.
• Goleman, D. J., & Schwartz, G. E. (1976). Meditation as an intervention in stress reactivity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44(3), 456-466.
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  PMID: 777059;Abstract: Compared the ability of meditation and relaxation to reduce stress reactions in a laboratory threat situation. 60 18-31 yr old Ss, 30 experienced mediators and 30 controls, either mediated or relaxed with eyes closed or open and then watched a stressor film. Stress response was assessed by phasic skin conductance, heart rate, self-report, and personality scale (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Affect Adjective Check List, and Activity Preference Questionnaire). Meditators and the meditation condition habituated heart rate and phasic skin conductance responses more quickly to the stressor impacts and experienced less subjective anxiety. Meditation can produce a psychophysiological configuration in stress situations opposite to that seen in stress-related syndromes. Research is indicated on clinical applications and on the process whereby meditation state effects may become meditator traits. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1976 American Psychological Association.
• Regestein, Q., Schwartz, G. E., & Lown, B. (1976). Operant conditioning of heart rate in free moving dogs. Cardiology, 61(2), 138-145.
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  PMID: 975129;Abstract: The magnitude of changes in heart rate that could be induced by the operant conditioning of beat to beat intervals was determined. Shock avoidance methods were employed during 71 sessions conducted over 17 weeks in 3 free moving mongrel dogs. Experimental periods during which conditioning was done alternated with baseline periods. Heart rate differences between baseline and experimental periods were used as indices of conditioning. Alterations in heart rate were compared among 4 types of sessions: control, random shock, decrement conditioning and increment conditioning. Conditioned heart rate decrements averaged 3% while heart rate increments averaged 10%. Thus, operant conditioning carried out over prolonged periods of time resulted in relatively minor changes in the heart rate.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1976). Self-regulation of response patterning - Implications for psychophysiological research and therapy. Biofeedback and Self-Regulation, 1(1), 7-30.
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  PMID: 990345;Abstract: This paper develops the basic premise that learning to self-regulate a pattern of responses can have different consequences from those observed when controlling individual functions alone. It is suggested that the self-regulation of patterns of responses can be a particularly sensitive and effective procedure for (a ) uncovering biological linkages and constraints between responses in the intact human, (b ) investigating how multiphysiological systems combine to produce unique subjective experiences and effects on performance, and (c ) enhancing the clinical effectiveness of biofeedback procedures by training patients to integrate and coordinate voluntarily specific patterns of cognitive, autonomic, and motor responses. These hypotheses are illustrated by basic research involving biofeedback training for patterns of blood pressure, heart rate and EEG activity, related experiments on the cognitive self-regulation of patterns of physiological responses using affective imagery and meditation procedures, and case studies of patients treated with biofeedback. The concept of electronic biofeedback as an "unnatural act" is presented with the goal of placing self-regulation within a more biobehavioral perspective emphasizing the natural patterning of physiological processes. © 1976 Plenum Publishing Corporation.
• Schwartz, G. E., Davidson, R. J., & Pugash, E. (1976). Voluntary control of patterns of EEG parietal asymmetry: cognitive concomitants. Psychophysiology, 13(6), 498-504.
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  PMID: 996217;Abstract: This experiment addressed two questions: 1) is training for EEG parietal asymmetry using pattern biofeedback accompanied by predictable cognitive concomitants? and 2) are the cognitive concomitants of training for simultaneous bilateral activation of the hemispheres a simple additive combination of the two asymmetry patterns, or do they represent a unique cognitive gestalt not readily predictable from the two asymmetry training conditions? Bilateral parietal EEG was recorded from 20 right handed subjects and filtered for 8-13 Hz activity. The four possible EEG patterns were quantified on line. All subjects received 12 min of EEG symmetry training (Lα(off)Rα(off) Integration) and 12 min each of EEG asymmetry training (Lα(off)Rα(on) and Lα(on)Rα(off) Differentiation). Significant regulation of all three patterns was obtained. Analysis of post feedback questionnaires revealed that Lα(off)Rα(on) regulation was associated with significantly more verbal cognitions, while the Lα(on)Rα(off) pattern was associated with more visual cognitions. EEG symmetry regulation (Lα(off)Rα(off)) produced a third pattern of cognitions different from both asymmetry conditions. The data suggest that feedback stabilized cortical patterning is associated with predictable cognitive concomitants and that pattern biofeedback procedures can be used to uncover the relationships between brain processes and subjective experience.
• Schwartz, G. E., Fair, P. L., & Salt, P. (1976). Facial imagery and inagery in depression: an electromyographic study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38(5), 337-347.
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  PMID: 981492;Abstract: When subjects are instructed to self-generate happy, sad, and angry imagery, discrete patterns of facial muscle activity can be detected using electromyographic (EMG) procedures. Prior research from this laboratory suggests that depressed subjects show attenuated facial EMG patterns during imagery conditions, particularly during happy imagery. In the present experiment, 12 depressed subjects and 12 matched normals were requested to generate happy and sad imagery, first with the instruction to simply 'think' about the imagery, and then to self-regulate the affective state by 'reexperiencing the feelings' associated with the imagery. Continuous recordings of facial EMG were obtained from the corrugator, zygomatic major, depressor anguli oris, and mentalis muscle regions. It was hypothesized that these muscle sites would reliably differentiate between happy and sad imagery, the instruction to self-generate the affective feeling state would produce greater EMG differences than the 'think' instructions, and the 'think' instructions would be a more sensitive indicator of the difference between depressed and nondepressed subjects, especially for happy imagery. All three hypotheses were confirmed. The application of facial electromyography to the assessment of normal and clinical mood states, and the role of facial muscle patterning in the subjective experience of emotion, are discussed.
• Schwartz, G. E., Fair, P. L., Salt, P., Mandel, M. R., & Klerman, G. L. (1976). Facial muscle patterning to affective imagery in depressed and nondepressed subjects. Science, 192(4238), 489-491.
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  PMID: 1257786;Abstract: When subjects imagine happy, sad, and angry situations, different patterns of facial muscle activity are produced which can be measured by electromyography. These subtle, typically covert, facial expression patterns differentiate depressed from nondepressed subjects. Facial electromyography can provide a sensitive, objective index of normal and clinical mood states.
• Schwartz, G. E., Young, L. D., & Volger, J. (1976). Heart rate regulation as skill learning. Strength endurance versus cardiac reaction time. Psychophysiology, 13(5), 472-478.
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  PMID: 972971;Abstract: Fleishman's (1966) model of complex motor skill learning is applied to visceral self regulation. Five different underlying abilities are illustrated: strength, endurance, steadiness, control precision, and reaction time. In the experiment, 16 subjects were pre and post tested with instructions alone for degree of cardiac Strength and Endurance control (SE) (maximally increase or decrease heart rate and sustain it for a minute) and degree of cardiac Reaction Time control (RT) (produce a small, 3 sec burst of increased or decreased heart rate as quickly as possible to the onset of a trial). All subjects received heart rate biofeedback during training, but half practiced SE while the other practiced RT. It was predicted that cardiac learning would be specific to the skill practiced during biofeedback, with little transfer to the other task. The data indicated that SE training led to improved SE control (30%) accompanied by a slight decrement in RT control (-5%). Conversely, RT training led to markedly improved RT control (120%) accompanied by a small decrement in SE control (-18%). The value of conceptualizing complex visceral skills as reflecting learned patterns of underlying neurophysiological abilities is illustrated.
• Sirota, A. D., Schwartz, G. E., & Shapiro, D. (1976). Voluntary control of human heart rate: Effect on reaction to aversive stimulation: A replication and extension. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85(5), 473-477.
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  PMID: 965575;Abstract: In anticipation of receiving painful stimuli, 20 female Ss learned to regulate their heart rate (HR) when provided with meter biofeedback and monetary bonuses for HR changes and instructions to increase or decrease their rate. Voluntary slowing of HR was associated with a relative reduction in perceived aversiveness of the stimuli, particularly in those Ss who scored high on a cardiac-awareness questionnaire (i.e., reported experiencing cardiac reactions to fear situations in daily life). These fingings replicate and extend previous findings by the authors (see record 1974-31631-001) on HR self-regulation, perception of aversive stimulation, and individual differences in cardiac awareness. They also provide further support for the hypothesis that biofeedback training for relevant physiological responses may serve as a behavioral strategy for changing anxiety and fear reactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1976 American Psychological Association.
• Steinberg, E. P., & Schwartz, G. E. (1976). Biofeedback and electrodermal self-regulation in psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85(4), 408-415.
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  PMID: 956508;Abstract: Examined the degree to which psychopaths can learn to modify their spontaneous skin resistance responses (SSRRs) using intructions and biofeedback. Ten clinically defined psychopaths and 12 control Ss were tested, using a within-S design. Ss were required to increase and decrease the frequency of SSRRs, first without feedback, then with biofeedback training, and finally without feedback. During prefeedback with instructions alone, control Ss were able to raise SSRRs relative to resting baselines, but psychopaths showed no SSRR control. After 16 min of biofeedback training, both groups were able to raise and lower their SSRRs to a comparable degree. The results for heart rate, measured at the same time, presented the opposite pattern; during prefeedback with instructions alone, both groups produced comparable increases in heart rate, but in postfeedback the controls maintained heart rate whereas the psychopaths did not. Data suggest that psychopaths are as capable of learning to voluntarily regulate electrodermal activity as are controls, but they still differ in autonomic patterning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1976 American Psychological Association.
• Bell, I. R., & Schwartz, G. E. (1975). Voluntary control and reactivity of human heart rate. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY, 12(3), 339-348.
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  PMID: 1153639;Abstract: Factors in human voluntary heart rate control with and without external feedback were studied. Average voluntary heart rate control in the laboratory was comparable to the range of heart rates obtained during accelerative decelerative 'reactivity' tasks in the laboratory and to heart rates obtained during various situations outside of the laboratory. However, cardiac rate reactivity did not reliably predict voluntary control performance across subjects. With full instructions, subjects were able to increase but not decrease heart rate relative to resting levels before feedback was provided. With full scale meter feedback, subjects could both increase and decrease heart rate relative to resting levels. Performance in bidirectional control during feedback remained constant. The ability both to increase and to decrease heart rate transferred to the postfeedback, no meter condition. Reversing the meaning of the Up and Down cue lights during post feedback for half of the subjects had no deleterious effect on bidirectional heart rate control. The importance of physiological and situational constraints in bidirectional heart rate control is discussed.
• Rosen, R. C., Shapiro, D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1975). Voluntary control of penile tumescence. Psychosomatic Medicine, 37(6), 479-483.
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  PMID: 1202544;Abstract: This study investigated the voluntary control of penile tumescence in the absence of external erotic stimulation. Twelve experimental subjects were given analogue visual feedback and monetary rewards for increases in penile diameter as measured by a strain gauge. Twelve control subjects were given no analogue feedback and noncontingent rewards but the same instructions to maximize erections. While both groups were capable of voluntary penile tumescence, significantly improved performance was observed in the experimental group. Two distinct psychophysiological patterns of voluntary penile tumescence were observed. A 'tension' pattern was associated with marked heart rate acceleration, irregular respiration, and variable penile response. A 'relaxation' pattern was associated with stable heart rate, regular respiration, and smooth tumescence curves. In using these procedures for the treatment of sexual dysfunctions, it is suggested that feedback and reward be given for a combined pattern of sexual and autonomic responses.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1975). Biofeedback, self regulation, and the patterning of physiological processes. American Scientist, 63(3), 314-324.
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  PMID: 1147369;
• Schwartz, G. E., Davidson, R. J., & Maer, F. (1975). Right hemisphere lateralization for emotion in the human brain: interactions with cognition. Science, 190(4211), 286-288.
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  PMID: 1179210;Abstract: Right handed subjects tend to look to the left when answering affective questions. The relative shift in gaze from right to left is accentuated when the questions also involve spatial manipulation and attenuated when the questions require verbal manipulation. The data support the hypothesis that the right hemisphere has a special role in emotion in the intact brain, and that predictable patterning of hemispheric activity can occur when specific combinations of cognitive and affective processes interact.
• Sirota, A. D., Schwartz, G. E., & Shapiro, D. (1974). Voluntary control of human heart rate: Effect on reaction to aversive stimulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83(3), 261-267.
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  PMID: 4844913;Abstract: In anticipation of receiving painful stimuli, 20 female 21-27 yr old Ss learned to control their heart rate when provided with external feedback and reward for criterion heart rate changes and were instructed to increase or decrease their rate. Voluntary slowing of heart rate led to a relative reduction in the perceived aversiveness of the stimuli, particularly for those Ss who reported experiencing cardiac reactions to fear situations in daily life. It is concluded that biofeedback training for relevant physiological responses may possibly serve as a behavioral strategy for changing anxiety and fear reactions. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1974 American Psychological Association.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1973). Biofeedback as therapy. Some theoretical and practical issues.. The American psychologist, 28(8), 666-673.
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  PMID: 4727278;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Shapiro, D. (1973). Biofeedback and essential hypertension: Current findings and theoretical concerns. SEMIN.PSYCHIAT., 5(4), 493-503.
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  PMID: 4770577;Abstract: When normotensive and hypertensive subjects are provided with feedback for relative increases or decreases in blood pressure and rewarded for these changes, they can learn to exert some control over their pressure. Biofeedback research on selfregulation of systolic and diastolic pressure, heart rate, and patterns of these functions is reviewed, and a general model of pattern learning is described. Application of these techniques to the control of systolic and diastolic pressure in patients diagnosed with essential hypertension are presented and critically analyzed. Problems of expectancy and motivation, personality and life style, and biologic constraints are emphasized. It is concluded that biofeedback techniques should be viewed as only one part of a combined bahavioral treatment program for hypertensive patients.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1972). Voluntary control of human cardiovascular integration and differentiation through feedback and reward. Science, 175(4017), 90-93.
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  PMID: 5008586;Abstract: Human subjects can learn to control the relation between their systolic blood pressure and heart rate when they are given feedback and reward for the desired pattern of blood pressure and heart rate. They can learn to integrate these functions (increase or decrease both jointly), or to a lesser degree, differentiate them (raise one and simultaneously lower the other). The extent of this learning is predicted by a behavioral and biological model that explains specificity of learning in the autonomic nervous system.
• Shapiro, D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1972). Biofeedback and visceral learning: clinical applications.. Seminars in psychiatry, 4(2), 171-184.
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  PMID: 4155534;
• Shapiro, D., Schwartz, G. E., & Tursky, B. (1972). Control of diastolic blood pressure in man by feedback and reinforcement.. Psychophysiology, 9(3), 296-304.
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  PMID: 5034118;
• Tursky, B., Shapiro, D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1972). AUTOMATED CONSTANT CUFF-PRESSURE SYSTEM TO MEASURE AVERAGE SYSTOLIC AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE IN MAN.. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, BME-19(4), 271-276.
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  PMID: 5036138;Abstract: An automated constant cuff-pressure system to remotely determine average human blood pressure levels was developed to overcome problems in measurement caused by natural beat-to-beat fluctuations in arterial pressure. A standard blood pressure cuff is inflated to approximately systolic pressure for a prescribed number of heart cycles. Korotkoff (K) sounds are picked up by a crystal microphone over the brachial artery. The EKG is recorded and an electronic coincidence circuit detects the number of R waves followed by a K sound. Cuff pressure is automatically adjusted until there is a 50 percent coincidence of R-K sounds. This cuff pressure is now by definition the median systolic pressure. The same procedure is followed to determine median diastolic pressure.
• Benson, H., Shapiro, D., Tursky, B., & Schwartz, G. E. (1971). Decreased systolic blood pressure through operant conditioning techniques in patients with essential hypertension. Science, 173(3998), 740-742.
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  PMID: 5568507;Abstract: Operant conditioning-feedback techniques were employed to lower systolic blood pressure in seven patients with essential hypertension. In five of the patients, meaningful decreases of systolic blood pressure were obtained in the laboratory, ranging from 16 to 34 millimeters of mercury. The therapeutic value of such techniques remains to be established.
• Higgins, J. D., Tursky, B., & Schwartz, G. E. (1971). Shock-elicited pain and its reduction by concurrent tactile stimulation. Science, 172(3985), 866-867.
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  PMID: 5572910;Abstract: Human affective reactions to nociceptive electrical stimulation were attenuated by application of a tactile stimulus to the shocked site. No alteration was perceived when the same tactile stimulus was applied to a similar contralateral site. These results and a lack of alteration at sensation threshold demonstrate the effect to be more than simple masking and support the Melzack-Wall theory.
• Levinson, B. L., Shapiro, D., Schwartz, G. E., & Tursky, B. (1971). Smoking elimination by gradual reduction. Behavior Therapy, 2(4), 477-487.
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  Abstract: Two methods of gradual reduction in smoking over a 12-week period were compared. The first required subjects to smoke at pre-set random times using a signalling device. The second allowed subjects to smoke at times of their choice using a mechanical counter to self-regulate their daily smoking quota. Each method was tested with and without group meetings. More subjects in the counter groups finished the program; however, groups using the signalling device were more successful in eliminating smoking at the time of a 3-month follow-up. The use of the signalling device was associated with a tendency to reduce the effects of situational cues on smoking, and group meetings seemed to raise morale among participants. The greatest difficulty in further smoking reduction occurred at the 12-14 cigarettes per day level for all groups. It was hypothesized that, despite the decrease in learned cues, further reduction is inhibited by the manifestation of withdrawal symptoms caused by some physiological addiction. These results suggest that a successful smoking elimination program should combine psychological and physiological approaches. © 1971 Academic Press, Inc.
• Schwartz, G. E. (1971). Cardiac responses to self-induced thoughts.. Psychophysiology, 8(4), 462-467.
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  PMID: 5094929;
• Schwartz, G. E., & Higgins, J. D. (1971). Cardiac activity preparatory to overt and covert behavior. Science, 173(4002), 1144-1146.
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  PMID: 5098958;Abstract: The heart rates of 17 women subjects were recorded as they prepared to make both overt (key press) and covert (silently thinking the word "stop") responses. A very reliable preparatory cardiac response was obtained regardless of whether the overt or covert response mode was employed. The temporal development of this cardiac response faithfully reflected the speed with which the subjects were asked to respond, suggesting that in the covert condition heart rate could be used to detect the time at which a mental event was being generated.
• Schwartz, G. E., Shapiro, D., & Tursky, B. (1971). Learned control of cardiovascular integration in man through operant conditioning.. Psychosomatic Medicine, 33(1), 57-62.
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  PMID: 5100734;
• Shapiro, D., Schwartz, G. E., Tursky, B., & Shnidman, S. R. (1971). Smoking on cue: a behavioral approach to smoking reduction.. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 12(2), 108-113.
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  PMID: 5088029;
• Staub, E., Tursky, B., & Schwartz, G. E. (1971). Self-control and predictability: Their effects on reactions to aversive stimulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(2), 157-162.
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  PMID: 5578258;Abstract: Investigated the effect of control predictability on reactions to aversive stimulation. 40 paid Ss received a sequence of electric shocks, gradually increasing in intensity under conditions of self- and no-control. Subjective judgment points, including decision about limit of endurance, and heart rate were used to assess reactions. It was found that a small variation in control and predictability (who pushed the shock button) did not itself affect reactions. However, compared to self-control Ss, no-control Ss judged less intense shock as uncomfortable and tolerated somewhat less shocks. These differences disappeared on a 2nd administration of shocks when both groups were given no-control conditions. The experimental treatments also affected heart rate reactions to the shocks. Findings suggest that control predictability can reduce the aversiveness of noxious stimulation. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1971 American Psychological Association.
• Crider, A., Schwartz, G. E., & Shapiro, D. (1970). Operant suppression of electrodermal response rate as a function of punishment schedule. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 83(2 PART 1), 333-334.
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  PMID: 5480906;Abstract: Replicated the H. J. Johnson and G. E. Schwartz (see 42:1) finding that a brief period of continuous punishment of the spontaneous electrodermal response with an aversive tone reduces response frequency to approximately 50% of operant level. Less suppression was found under a partial schedule in which every 2nd response was punished. The experiment, using 20 university students and employees, employed a 2 * 2 factorial design with continuous vs. partial punishment and contingent vs. yoked aversive stimulation as the factors. The analysis was based on response frequencies during a 20-min extinction test period following a 20-min treatment period. Results showed contingent-yoked differences to be greater under the continuous than under the partial schedule. No recovery from suppression was observed during extinction in either condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1970 American Psychological Association.
• Shapiro, D., & Schwartz, G. E. (1970). Psychophysiological contributions to social psychology.. Annual Review of Psychology, 21, 87-112.
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  PMID: 4904378;
• Shapiro, D., Tursky, B., & Schwartz, G. E. (1970). Control of blood pressure in man by operant conditioning.. Circulation Research, 27(1 Suppl 1), 27-41.
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  PMID: 5423299;
• Shapiro, D., Tursky, B., & Schwartz, G. E. (1970). Differentiation of heart rate and systolic blood pressure in man by operant conditioning.. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32(4), 417-423.
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  PMID: 5514178;
• Tursky, B., Schwartz, G. E., & Crider, A. (1970). Differential patterns of heart rate and skin resistance during a digit-transformation task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 83(3 PART 1), 451-457.
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  PMID: 5480912;Abstract: 15 undergraduates performed a paced digit-transformation task at 2 levels of difficulty under an overt or covert response requirement. Time-locked recordings of heart rate and skin resistance showed heart-rate deceleration during the information-intake phase of the task and acceleration during cognitive processing. Skin resistance showed a generalized arousal pattern during both information intake and processing. Response magnitudes in both measures were generally enhanced in the more difficult condition and under the requirement to make an overt response indicating task fulfillment. Results support J. I. Lacey's (see 33:4) hypothesis of directional fractionation of autonomic response as a function of the internal-external attention demands of imposed tasks. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1970 American Psychological Association.
• Crider, A., Schwartz, G. E., & Shnidman, S. (1969). On the criteria for instrumental autonomic conditioning: A reply to Katkin and Murray. Psychological Bulletin, 71(6), 455-461.
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  Abstract: In their recent review of instrumental conditioning of autonomic functions, E. S. Katkin and E. N. Murray (see 42: criticized most of the existing studies on the human level as artifactual on 1 or more grounds. The criteria they employed for rejecting these demonstrations are themselves open to criticism, however. Specifically, it is argued that (1) peripheral or cognitive mediation hypotheses are unlikely alternative explanations of the obtained results; (2) an increase in response frequency over a preconditioning operant level is not a necessary condition for demonstrating an increase in response probability with contingent reinforcement; and (3) yoked-control designs, frequently used in this research, do not automatically invalidate experiments in which they are employed. It is concluded that the strongest hypothesis to account for the existing data remains the direct instrumental strengthening of autonomic activity. (35 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1969 American Psychological Association.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Johnson, H. J. (1969). Affective visual stimuli as operant reinforcers of the GSR. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80(1), 28-32.
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  PMID: 5787417;Abstract: Attempted to determine whether affective stimuli could act as more potent reinforcers of spontaneous GSR activity than those previously employed. 10 contingent (C) male undergraduates were shown slides of nude females taken from a popular magazine each time they produced a spontaneous GSR. 10 noncontingent (NC) male undergraduates were matched on resting GSRs with C Ss and received the same number of reinforcers per minute as C Ss except at times when no GSRs were present. During conditioning the C group showed a substantial increase in frequency of GSRs, while the NC group showed a marked decrease. These differences were maintained during an extinction period. No differences were obtained for either heart rate or respiration rate during conditioning or extinction, although GSR level evidenced Group X Time interactions. It is concluded that the strength of a reinforcer is an important parameter which must be considered in operant studies of autonomic responding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1969 American Psychological Association.
• Schwartz, G. E., & Johnson, H. J. (1968). EFFECTS OF PREFERENCE ON DISPLACEMENT IN APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73(5), 487-491.
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  PMID: 5749185;Abstract: REEXAMINED DISPLACEMENT AS FORMULATED BY E. J. MURRAY AND M. M. BERKUN (SEE 30:3). SIMILARITY TO THE GOAL AND SPATIAL PLACEMENT OF THE ALLEYS WERE MANIPULATED WITH AN ADDITIONAL VARIABLE OF BRIGHTNESS (BLACK) AND TEXTURE (HARDWARE CLOTH FLOOR) PREFERENCE IN 24 SPRAGUE-DAWLEY RATS. SS TRAVELED LEAST DOWN THE WHITE SMOOTH-FLOOR ALLEYS, MIDWAY DOWN THE GREY SCREEN-FLOOR ALLEYS, AND FARTHEST DOWN THE BLACK HARDWARE CLOTH-FLOOR ALLEYS. THIS OCCURRED REGARDLESS OF THE SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE ALLEYS OR THE COLOR OF THE ALLEY IN WHICH SS RECEIVED THE INITIAL APPROACH-AVOIDANCE TRAINING. SS TRAINED IN THE NONPREFERRED (WHITE) ALLEYS TOOK A GREATER NUMBER OF TRIALS TO RECOVER FROM APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT THAN SS TRAINED IN THE PREFERRED (BLACK) ALLEYS. THE IMPORTANCE OF A PREFERENCE VARIABLE IN STUDIES OF CONFLICT BEHAVIOR IS STRESSED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1968 American Psychological Association.
• JOHNSON, H. J., & SCHWARTZ, G. E. (1967). SUPPRESSION OF GSR ACTIVITY THROUGH OPERANT REINFORCEMENT. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75(3), 307-312.
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  PMID: 6079844;Abstract: AVERSIVE STIMULATION WAS APPLIED DIFFERENTIALLY TO SPONTANEOUS GSR ACTIVITY IN 4 GROUPS OF SS. 2 GROUPS (C GROUPS) WERE EXPOSED TO A LOUD TONE EACH TIME THEY SHOWED SPONTANEOUS GSRS, AND 2 (NC GROUPS) WERE GIVEN THE SAME NUMBER OF TONES, BUT AT TIMES WHEN THERE WERE NO GSRS. IN ADDITION, SS IN 1 C AND 1 NC GROUP WERE INSTRUCTED THAT THEIR BEHAVIOR HAD SOMETHING TO DO WITH THE NUMBER OF TONES RECEIVED DURING THE EXPERIMENT. THE C GROUPS SHOWED SIGNIFICANT DECREASES IN GSR ACTIVITY WHILE THE NC GROUPS SHOWED LITTLE CHANGE. THE INSTRUCTION VARIABLE DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECT GSR ACTIVITY. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1967 American Psychological Association.

Proceedings Publications

• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, September). Pioneering Soul Phone Communications. In New Developments in Afterlife Communications, Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies, 69-82.

Presentations

• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, February). Super Synchronicity: Where Science and Spirit Meet. Institute of Noetic Sciences. Tucson: Institute of Noetic Sciences.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, January). Transformative Science and the SoulPhone Project: A Historical Opportunity. Institute of Noetic Sciences. Tucson: Institute of Noetic Sciences.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, June). Contemporary Afterlife Science: Applications to spiritual psychology and postmaterialist science. Postmaterialist Science event, Columbia University. Spirituality Mind Body Institute, Columbia University, NY, NY: Columbia University.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, June). Technique for detecting subaudible vocalizations for hypothesized collaborating discarnates: three proof of concept experiments. Society for Scientific Exploration, Yale University. Yale University, New Haven, CT: Society for Scientific Exploration.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, June). Validating the collaborating spirits hypothesis: Convincing evidence from converging experiments. Keynote Address. Chapel Hill, NC: Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, September). How science is proving that spirits are collaborating with us. Afterlife Research and Education Institute annual conference, Invited dinner address. Scottsdale, AZ: Afterlife Research and Education Institute.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, September). Lessons from mediumship science for spiritual communication technology research. Afterlife Research and Education Institute annual conference / Keynote Address. Scottsdale, Arizona: Afterlife Research and Education Institute.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, April). Can Claimant Evidential Mediums Identify Collaborating Hypothesized Discarnates. Science of Consciousness. Tucson, AZ: Center for Consciousness Studies, University of Arizona.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, December). The Case for the Soul Phone: Understanding Transformative Science (Keynote Address). Aspects of Consciousness. Scottsdale, Arizona: Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, December). The Sacred Promise: Overview and Applications (Parts I and II). The Great Ideas Series. Sedona, AZ: Yavapai Community College.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, February). The State of Afterlife Research Today. Special Invited Lecture. Corte Madera, CA: The Sunrise Center.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, June). Fraud, Mind Reading, or Spirit? The Science Speaks. The Spirit Symposium. Sedona, AZ: Yavapai Community College.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, June). Is the Universe Organized? An Elegantly Simple Methodology Applied to the Hubble Ultra Deep Field Image. EU2016 Elegant Simplicity. Phoenix, AZ: The Thunderbolt Project.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, June). The Soul Phone Revolution: How Will Our Lives Change?. The Spirit Symposium. Sedona, AZ: Yavapai Community College.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, October). The State of Afterlife Research Today. Beyond the Illusion: Reality on Both Sides of the Veil. Sedona, AZ: Sedona Mago Retrest.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015, August). Super Synchronicity and Self-Science. Synchronicity and Sacred Flow. Rhinebeck, NY: The Omega Institute.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015, February). Post-Materialist Psychology: From Mind-Brain Mechanisms to Integrative Spiritual Science. Department of Psychology Colloquium Series. Tucson, AZ: Department of Psychology, University of Arizona.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015, June). Extraordinary Ideas and Evidence: The Five-Finger Test. EU 2015 Paths of Discovery. Phoenix, AZ: The Thunderbolt Project.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015, June). Post-Materialist Psychology and Spirituality. MA Spirituality Mind-Body Intensive. New York City, NY: Spirituality and Mind-Body Institute, Columbia University.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015, September). The State of Afterlife Research Today. Life In The Afterlife. Scottsdale, AZ: Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies.
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  Keynote Address
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, April). Anomalous and replicated high amplitude photon bursts associated with specific hypothesized spirits. Toward a Science of Consciousness. Tucson, AZ: Center for Consciousness Studies, The University of Arizona.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, August). Anomalous and replicated high amplitude photon bursts associated with specific hypothesized spirits. Annual Research Meeting of the Parapsychological Association. Concord, CA: Parapsychological Assocation.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, February). Welcome and Overview; Afterlife Science; Summary and Directions. International Summit on Postmaterialist Science, Spirituality, and Society. Canyon Ranch in Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona and Columbia University.
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  Schwartz was the organizer of the summit; Beauregard and Miller were the co-organizers.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, July). Visionary Science: Quantifying Our Collaboration with Spirit (Keynote Address). Science, Spirituality & the Healing Arts. Encinitas, CA: California Institute of Human Sciences.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, June). Postmaterialist psychology and spirituality. Summer Intensive Masters Degree Program (Visiting Scholar). NYC, NY: Spirituality Mind Body Institute, Teachers College, Columbia University.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, September). Acknowledging the Spirit: A turning point in research (Keynote Address). Consciousness: From Beginning to End of Life and Beyond. Washington, DC: U.S. Spiritist Medical Congress.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, September). Pioneering Soul Phone Communications (Keynote Address). New Developments in Afterlife Communications. Scottsdale, AZ: Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, September). The Greater Spiritual Reality (Keynote Address). Consciousness: From Beginning to End of Life and Beyond. Washington, DC: U.S. Spiritist Medical Congress.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2013, April). The Truth about Medium. US Spiritist Congress. Dallas, TX: US Spiritist Congress.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2013, February). World Hypotheses and the evolution of wisdom. Evolving Wisdom: World Hypotheses and the Challenge of Sustainability. Canyon Ranch, Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona, Canyon Ranch.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2013, July). The Greatest Transformation: How the Science of Immortality Changes Everything.. Conference on Convergence of Science and Spirituality. Encinitas, CA: California Institute of Human Sciences.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2013, June). Anomalous high amplitude photon bursts replicated during detection research with specific hypothesis spirits. Annual Research Meeting. Detroit, MI: Society for Scientific Exploration.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2013, March). The Sacred Promise. Invited presentations (2). Villages, FL: Unity Church.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2013, Nov). The Energy Healing Experiments. Understanding the Science of Energy Medicine. Tucson, AZ: Private Sponsor.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2013, September). The Sacred Promise and the Soul Phone. Afterlife ConferencePrivate Donor.

Others

• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, February). Afterword in LOVE ETERNAL. In R. Eklund Schwartz LOVE ETERNAL.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, February). Foreword for LOVE ETERNAL. In R. Eklund Schwartz LOVE ETERNAL book.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2017, September). Foreword to THE AFTERLIFE REVOLUTION:. In Anne and Whitley Strieber THE AFTERLIFE REVOLUTION book - Foreword is 15 pages.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, December). Foreword for The New Science of Consciousness Survival and the Metaparadigm Shift to a Conscious Universe. Book written by Alan Ross Hugenot.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2016, July). Foreward for Sacred Quantum Metaphysics: Easy-To-Understand Scientific Shortcuts to Ancient Wisdom. Book written by Rich Hass.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015, November). Foreword:. Bio-Touch.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2015, September). Foreword:. Adventures in Psychical Research.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, Fall). Foreword. Healing Touch: Enhancing Life through Energy Healing.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, Fall). Foreword. The Fun of Staying in Touch.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, Summer). Foreword. Repose: The Potent Pause.
• Schwartz, G. E. (2014, Summer). Foreword. Wolf's Message.