Ivy L Pike

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• Pike, I. L. (2016). Callibrating the next generation: mothers, early life experiences, and reproductive development. In Biological Measures of Human Experience across the Lifespan: Making Visible the Invisible. Springer Press.

Journals/Publications

• Pike, I. L., & Crocker, R. M. (2020). "My own corner of loneliness:" Social isolation and place among Mexican immigrants in Arizona and Turkana pastoralists of Kenya.. Transcultural psychiatry, 57(5), 661-672. doi:10.1177/1363461520938286
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  This article explores the intersection of two growing health concerns: the rising incidence of loneliness and the negative health impacts of migration and displacement. To better evaluate loneliness across diverse populations, we emphasize the cultural shaping of expectations for social lives and the ways in which structural vulnerability and violence can undermine these expectations. We draw on ethnographic research with two groups of migrants: Mexican immigrants living in southern Arizona and Turkana pastoralists of Kenya who experience displacement and unpredictable mobility as a result of low intensity violence. For Mexican immigrants, feelings of loneliness intertwine with the emotions of fear, trauma, and sadness, all closely associated with social isolation. The Turkana describe loneliness associated with the loss of their animals, or the shifting social landscapes they must traverse to keep their families safe. The culturally salient experiences described by these two communities highlight the complexity of defining loneliness. Given the pace of global migration and the number of refugees and displaced persons, closer scrutiny of how cultural expectations and structural violence interact to produce feelings of loneliness seems overdue.
• Wood, B. M., Pike, I. L., Sayre, M. K., Wood, B. M., Sayre, M. K., Raichlen, D. A., Pontzer, H., Raichlen, D. A., Pontzer, H., Pike, I. L., Mabulla, A. Z., Pike, I. L., Mabulla, A. Z., Alexander, G. E., & Alexander, G. E. (2020). Ageing and physical function in East African foragers and pastoralists.. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 375(1811), 20190608. doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0608
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  Human lifespans are exceptionally long compared with those of other primates. A key element in exploring the evolution of human longevity is understanding how modern humans grow older. Our current understanding of common age-related changes in human health and function stems mostly from studies in industrialized societies, where older adulthood is often associated with an increased incidence of chronic diseases. However, individuals who engage in different lifestyles across industrialized and non-industrialized contexts may display variance in age-related changes in health and function. Here, we explore aspects of physical function in a non-industrialized context using three objective measures of physical function. We assessed physical activity levels, walking endurance and muscle strength in two East African populations: Hadza hunter-gatherers in Tanzania and Pokot pastoralists in Kenya. Both Hadza and Pokot participants displayed significant age-related differences in most, but not all, functional measures. Our results suggest that some age-related differences in physical function seen in industrialized contexts could be consistently experienced by most humans, while other age-related differences may vary across populations. Studies of ageing should expand to include a broad range of populations so we can create a more comprehensive understanding of how senescence varies across different lifestyle contexts. This article is part of the theme issue 'Evolution of the primate ageing process'.
• Pike, I. L. (2019). Intersections of Insecurity, Nurturing, and Resilience: A Case Study of Turkana Women of Kenya. American Anthropologist, 121(1), 126-137. doi:10.1111/aman.13153
• Pike, I. L., Sayre, M. K., Raichlen, D. A., & Pike, I. L. (2019). High levels of objectively measured physical activity across adolescence and adulthood among the Pokot pastoralists of Kenya.. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 31(1), e23205. doi:10.1002/ajhb.23205
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  Levels of physical activity (PA) across the lifespan are important predictors of physical fitness, impacting individual health, and longevity. Individuals living in industrialized societies are often characterized as more sedentary than those who live in small-scale societies, and this inactivity is generally linked with increased incidence of chronic disease, especially during aging. However, less empirical data exist regarding levels and patterns of PA across the lifespan among small-scale societies compared with industrialized societies. The goal of this study was to characterize PA among the Pokot pastoralists of rural northern Kenya..PA was measured in 40 participants ranging in age from 14 to 78 years using ActiGraph wrist-worn accelerometers. Wear time spanned 24-77 hours, with a modal wear time of 50 hours..We show that the Pokot spend large amounts of time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), achieving an average of 99.14 ± 7.25 minutes per day in MVPA. Males and younger participants tended to spend more time in MVPA. However, older participants were still physically active and engaged in over 50 minutes per day of MVPA..The Pokot are highly physically active from adolescence through adulthood. Other pastoralist groups may display a similar pattern of PA. During human evolution, lifespans increased, and lifestyles were characterized by a relatively high level of physical activity. The human aging process may be adapted for activity throughout life, and lifelong activity may have played an important role in increases in human longevity during evolution.
• Pike, I. L., Hilton, C., Osterle, M., & Olungah, O. (2018). Low-intensity violence and the social determinants of adolescent health among three East African pastoralist communities.. Social science & medicine (1982), 202, 117-127. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.01.022
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  Recently, strong pleas have emerged to place the health of adolescents on the global health agenda. To reposition adolescence front and center, scholars argue that we must work toward a richly contextualized approach that considers the role that social environments play in shaping the final stages of growth and development. We aim to contribute to this deeper understanding of the social determinants of global adolescent health by offering a case study of three nomadic pastoralist communities from northern Kenya. In addition to noteworthy political and economic marginalization, East African pastoralist communities also contend with chronic, low intensity intercommunity conflict. Data collected over five extensive visits from 2008 to 2011, include the 10-19 year olds from 215 randomly sampled Pokot, Samburu, and Turkana households. Using a case/control design, we sampled two sites per ethnic community: one directly affected and one less affected by intercommunity violence. Our nutritional findings indicate that teens ages 15-19 years old had significantly higher anthropometric values compared to younger teens. Living in a wealthier household is associated with greater height, body mass indices, and summed skinfolds for boys but not for girls. Anthropometric measures were influenced by household and community variation in the mixed-effects, multi-level regression models. The Self-Report Questionnaire (SRQ-20) was used to assess psychosocial health, with higher scores associated with living in a community directly affected by violence and having lost a loved one due to violence. Our findings highlight the unique nature of adolescent health challenges but also the central role even subtle differences across communities and households play in shaping young people's experiences. With few studies to document the lived experience of pastoralist youth as they move toward adulthood, examining how such challenging socioeconomic environment shapes health seems long overdue.
• Pike, I. L., Straight, B., Hilton, C., & Olungah, C. (2018). Adolescent health in a conflict zone of Northern Kenya. Social Science & Medicine.
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  Full Citation: under review in Social Science and MedicineStatus: Submitted
• Pike, I. L., Straight, B., Hilton, C., & Oesterle, M. (2016). Comparative nutritional indicators as markers for resilience: A case study of the impacts of low-intensity violence among three pastoralist communities of northern Kenya. Journal of East African Studies.
• Straight, B., Oesterle, M., Pike, I. L., & Hilton, C. E. (2015). Suicide in Three East African Pastoralist Communities and the Role of Researcher Outsiders for Positive Transformation: A Case Study.. Culture, medicine and psychiatry, 39(3), 557-78. doi:10.1007/s11013-014-9417-4
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  We examine cultural understandings and practices surrounding suicide in Pokot, Samburu, and Turkana pastoralists in north-central Kenya--three geographically overlapping and mutually interacting pastoralist communities. We collected our data in the context of a study of poverty, violence, and distress. In all three communities, stigma associated with suicide circumscribed individual responses to the World Health Organization's Self-Report Questionnaire, which led to an ethnographic sub-study of suicide building upon our long-standing research in East Africa on distress, violence, and death. As is true for most of sub-Saharan Africa, reliable statistical data are non-existent for these communities. Thus, we deliberately avoid making assertions about generalizable statistical trends. Rather, we take the position that ethnographically nuanced studies like the one we offer here provide a necessary basis for the respectful collection of accurate quantitative data on this important and troubling practice. Moreover, our central point in this paper is that positive transformational work relating to suicide is most likely when researcher outsiders practice 'deep engagement' while respectfully restricting their role to (1) iterative, community-driven approaches that contextualize suicide; and (2) sharing contextualized analyses with other practitioners. We contend that situating suicide within a broader cultural framework that includes attitudes and practices surrounding other forms of death is essential to both aspects of anthropological-outsiders' role.
• Straight, B., Pike, I. L., Hilton, C., & Oesterle, M. (2015). Suicide and Troubled Mourning in Three East African Pastoralist Communities. Culture Medicine and Psychiatry, 39(3), 557-578.
• Pike, I. L. (2014). Dynamics of human biocultural diversity: A unified approach. By Elisa J. Sobo. 356 pp. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. 2012. $39.95 (paper), $39.95 (e‐book). American Journal of Human Biology, 26(5), 719-720. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22591
• Pike, I. L., & Young, A. G. (2012). A biocultural framework for examining maternal cravings and aversions among pastoral women in East Africa. Ecology of Food and Nutrition.
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  Invited;Your Role: Second author - contributed data, analyses, wrote sections of the manuscript and offered proof readings;Full Citation: Young, Alyson G. and Ivy L. Pike. 2012. A Biocultural Framework for Examining Maternal Cravings and Aversions among Pastoral Women in East Africa. Special Issue: Biocultural Considerations of Food Cravings and Aversions. Crystal Patil and Sera Young Guest Editors. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 51(5):444-462.;Other collaborative: Yes;Specify other collaborative: A former PhD student who is now junior faculty at U of Florida. ;
• Hadley, C., Brewis, A., & Pike, I. L. (2010). Does less autonomy erode women's health? Yes. No. Maybe.. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 22(1), 103-10. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20959
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  Understanding the determinants of health is a central objective of human biology and related fields. Female autonomy is hypothesized to be an important determinant of women's health as well as demographic outcomes. The literature relating women's health to their everyday autonomy has produced conflicting results, and this may be due in part to the application of different measures of autonomy and different measures of health. Using secondary data from a large nationally representative study, this study examines the relationship between multiple measures of female autonomy and three measures of wellbeing among women living in Uzbekistan (n = 5,396). The multivariate results show that women's autonomy related to freedom of movement is associated with lower levels of depression symptomatology and lower systolic blood pressure. Respondents who assert that women should have control over their bodies also had lower odds of high depression symptoms and lower diastolic blood pressure. In contrast, women with greater decision-making autonomy were more likely to be classified as having high depressive symptomatology and higher diastolic blood pressure. Building on recent work, we suggest that these associations might reflect varying levels of agreement between men and women, and we provide some limited evidence to support this. This study stands as a theoretical and methodological cautionary note by suggesting that the relationship between autonomy and health is complex. Further, if differences in gender agreement underlie differences in the predictive accuracy of autonomy scales, then human biology researchers will need to begin collecting identical data from men and women.
• Pike, I. L., Straight, B., Oesterle, M., Lanyasunya, A., & Hilton, C. E. (2010). Documenting the health consequences of endemic warfare in three pastoralist communities of northern Kenya: a conceptual framework.. Social science & medicine (1982), 70(1), 45-52. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.10.007
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  Violent conflict represents the third most important source of mortality around the world, yet violence-related mortality remains profoundly undercounted (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, 2002). As a step toward documenting the consequences of even the "smallest wars" we offer a conceptual framework for a recently initiated project that comparatively examines the direct and indirect consequences of intercommunity violence among Pokot, Samburu, and Turkana herding communities of Northern Kenya. While a substantial body of work has accumulated on the social responses to this violence very little is known about the differential impacts on community health. Based on our cumulative ethnographic experience in the area, we offer a conceptual framework that merges a context-sensitive ethnographic approach with a comparative epidemiological one centered on documenting the lived experience of violence and inequality. In this paper, we provide evidence for the importance of a contextualized approach detailing how social environments that include chronic episodes of violence produce variations in health. We do so by presenting the results of previous work to highlight what is known and follow this by identifying what remains to be understood about how violence, inequality, and health interact in these communities. While much is known about the importance of access to livestock herds for health, nutrition, and child growth in this difficult physical environment, far less is known about how the social responses to violence interact with access to herds to create new patterns of nutrition and health. With respect to pastoralists, additional areas that remain only nominally understood include age-specific mortality patterns, reproductive health, and psychosocial/mental health, topics that we view as central to the current study. In sum, we suggest that health offers one of the most useful tools for examining the costs of violence by creating opportunities for advocacy.
• Pike, I. L., & Patil, C. L. (2006). Understanding women's burdens: preliminary findings on psychosocial health among Datoga and Iraqw women of northern Tanzania.. Culture, medicine and psychiatry, 30(3), 299-330. doi:10.1007/s11013-006-9022-2
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  This preliminary, community-based study examines major stressors identified by Iraqw and Datoga women of Mbulu District, Tanzania, and describes steps in creating a culturally specific questionnaire to assess mental health burdens. This area of Tanzania is remote, with limited access to goods and services, and is undergoing dramatic social and economic changes. Iraqw and Datoga reside in close proximity and often intermarry but have different cultural and subsistence responses to this rapid social change. Data were collected from May to October 2002, with 49 Datoga women and 64 Iraqw women interviewed. In-home interviews were conducted to have women (1) free-list their primary concerns and (2) answer questions from a translated (in Datoga and Iraqw) and modified standardized mental health questionnaire. Both groups of women identified hunger, the lack of animals, particularly cattle, and health/illnesses as the most common major stressors. Other frequently cited stressors included crop failure, general fears of violence, paying taxes, and no money for basic needs. Additional refinements are required for the mental health questionnaire, with strengths and limitations discussed. Such data, while preliminary, augment efforts to analyze the emotional burdens associated with dramatic social change.
• Pike, I. L., & Williams, S. R. (2006). Incorporating psychosocial health into biocultural models: preliminary findings from Turkana women of Kenya.. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 18(6), 729-40. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20548
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  This paper investigates the potential benefits and limitations of including psychosocial stress data in a biocultural framework of human adaptability. Building on arguments within human biology on the importance of political economic perspectives for examining patterns of biological variation, this paper suggests that psychosocial perspectives may further refine our understanding of the mechanisms through which social distress yields differences in health and well-being. To assess a model that integrates psychosocial experiences, we conducted a preliminary study among nomadic pastoralist women from northern Kenya. We interviewed 45 women about current and past stressful experiences, and collected anthropometric data and salivary cortisol measures. Focus group and key informant interviews were conducted to refine our understanding of how the Turkana discuss and experience distress. The results suggest that the most sensitive indicators of Turkana women's psychosocial experiences were the culturally defined idioms of distress, which showed high concordance with measures of first-day salivary cortisol. Other differences in stress reactivity were associated with the frequent movement of encampments, major herd losses, and direct experiences of livestock raiding. Despite the preliminary nature of these data, we believe that the results offer important lessons and insights into the longer-term process of incorporating psychosocial models into human adaptability studies.
• Kuzawa, C. W., & Pike, I. L. (2005). Introduction. Fetal origins of developmental plasticity.. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 17(1), 1-4. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20090
• Pike, I. L. (2005). Maternal stress and fetal responses: evolutionary perspectives on preterm delivery.. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 17(1), 55-65. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20093
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  New epidemiological and neurohormonal evidence provides insights into the persistent public health issue of preterm delivery and its long-term health consequences for the newborn. Mechanisms linked to preterm delivery may originate early in gestation as a result of maternal cues signaling a stressful intrauterine environment. When these signals are present, the fetus responds with a series of facultative responses, including accelerated organ maturation. If these responses are unsuccessful and the environment remains insufficient, a series of feed-forward mechanisms initiate the hormonal cascade that leads to parturition, and thus, early expulsion from a stressful environment. The internal environmental cues are delivered via glucocorticoids (stress hormones) in the circulatory system, but fetal responses and the initiation of the final terminal pathway to parturition are regulated by placentally derived corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). The potential costs of early expulsion from a stressful intrauterine environment are high and include an increased likelihood of perinatal and infant mortality. Permanent alterations in organ and metabolic functioning may occur, suggesting considerable fitness trade-offs. There is some evidence that preterm parturition is a maternal adaptation to limit the energetic costs of individual pregnancies in the face of poor condition at the time of conception. Moreover, nutritional stress is not the only indicator that signals a stressful environment: maternal psychosocial stress, and thus her response to an assessment of the social environment, also signal an insufficient internal environment to the fetus. The epidemiological and neurohormonal evidence for these relationships and mechanisms responsible for regulating such delicate negotiations are explored. In turn, the implications of such findings are examined from life history and public health perspectives.
• Pike, I. L. (2004). The Biosocial Consequences of Life on the Run: A Case Study from Turkana District, Kenya. Human Organization, 63(2), 221-235. doi:10.17730/humo.63.2.tpa607r9enhl7k1x
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  Throughout East Africa, pastoralist populations live in harsh physical environments coupled with constant threats of livestock raiding and generally widespread insecurity. In this uncertain backdrop, pastoralist families must search for safe and secure forage and water for their herds. The Turkana of Kenya, a good example of a pastoralist group facing such threats, dodge insecurity by constant movement into unfriendly and unknown territory. In addition, Turkana herd owners move in very large herding groups with armed guards. As data from a 1998 field season suggest, such strategies have important consequences. These consequences are both social and biological and include modifications in social organization, diet, and the avoidance of health centers. The psychosocial consequences also are notable. As disruptive as the worst drought, insecurity has the potential to threaten not only the social well-being of pastoralists but also their health and survival.
• Pike, I. L. (2003). Human biology of pastoral populations. American Journal of Human Biology, 15(2), 229-230. doi:10.1002/ajhb.10125
• Sundal, M., Wiebusch, B., Pike, I. L., Little, M. A., Leslie, P. W., & Gray, S. J. (2003). Cattle raiding, cultural survival, and adaptability of East African pastoralists. Current Anthropology, 44(S5), 3-30. doi:10.1086/377669
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  Since the late 1970s, cattle raiding with automatic weapons has escalated among nomadic herding societies in northern East Africa. We examine the impact of AK47 raiding on the adaptability of Karimojong agropastoralists in northern Uganda. Most notably, raiding is linked to a loss of population resilience in Karamoja, measured in increased mortality of young children and of adult males in their prime reproductive years and decreased female fertility. AK47 raiding has acted both directly and indirectly as a Darwinian stressor in this population, compromising longstanding adaptive strategies and intensifying selection pressure. We briefly discuss similar effects of recently altered patterns of raiding among related Turkana pastoralists in Kenya. We then consider the process by which this traditional cultural institution was modified in the interests of preserving cultural identity. We conclude nonetheless that cattle raiding with automatic weapons constitutes singularly maladaptive cultural behavior in cont...
• Pike, I. L. (2000). Pregnancy outcome for nomadic Turkana pastoralists of Kenya.. American journal of physical anthropology, 113(1), 31-45. doi:10.1002/1096-8644(200009)113:1<31::aid-ajpa4>3.0.co;2-w
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  The outcome of an individual pregnancy is a key component of overall reproductive success and is strongly influenced by environmental, behavioral, and biological variation within populations. This prospective study examined the outcomes of 68 pregnancies among nomadic Turkana of Kenya from July 1993 to July 1994. A total of 12 women experienced pregnancy losses, and 3 women experienced live births with a subsequent perinatal death. The following characteristics are associated with increased risk for experiencing a fetal or perinatal death: severe morbidity episodes, shorter nonpregnant intervals, lower third-trimester weight, higher third-trimester summed skinfolds but limited third-trimester reduction in summed skinfolds, and higher activity levels late in gestation. Turkana newborns measured within 48 hr of birth (n = 19) weighed an average of 2,860 +/- 640 g and had a mean ponderal index of 2.72 +/- 0.46. Variation in birth weight was predicted by preterm delivery, delivery during the wet season, and maternal morbidity levels. Birth length averaged 50.8 +/- 6.8 cm and was positively influenced by full term delivery, better maternal health, and birth during the dry season. These results suggest complicated pathways linking the physical environment, subsistence requirements, heterogeneity in maternal fitness, behavior, and pregnancy outcome. The results augment the larger picture of reproductive success for Turkana nomads who live in a highly variable savanna environment.
• Pike, I. L. (1999). Age, reproductive history, seasonality, and maternal body composition during pregnancy for nomadic Turkana of Kenya.. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 11(5), 658-672. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6300(199909/10)11:5<658::aid-ajhb9>3.0.co;2-e
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  To evaluate the potential differences in maternal nutritional investment in pregnancy, data collected from nomadic Ngisonyoka Turkana women during a July 1993-July 1994 field season were utilized. The roles maternal age, parity, duration of the previous nonpregnant interval, overlap between pregnancy and lactation on trimester changes in weight and summed skinfolds during pregnancy were examined. Because seasonality is an important aspect of the Turkana environment, the effects of seasonality were also assessed. First trimester weight gain is positively associated with overlap in pregnancy and lactation. Second trimester maternal weight gain is negatively influenced by higher parity and by overlap between lactation and early pregnancy. Third trimester weight gain is influenced only by seasonally induced morbidity. First trimester changes in maternal skinfolds are negatively influenced by older maternal age and parity, and positively influenced by a longer nonpregnant interval, and overlap between pregnancy and lactation. Second and third trimester skinfolds are significantly associated only with overlap between lactation and pregnancy (negatively in the second, positively in the third). Seasonality does not influence maternal skinfolds. Differences in age- and parity-related patterns of maternal nutritional investment in pregnancy are not supported by the data. The possibility that Turkana cultural beliefs may influence nutritional status during pregnancy is discussed. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 11:658-672, 1999. Copyright 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
• Wiley, A. S., & Pike, I. L. (1998). An alternative method for assessing early mortality in contemporary populations.. American journal of physical anthropology, 107(3), 315-30. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199811)107:3<315::aid-ajpa8>3.0.co;2-4
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  Biological anthropologists are interested in a population's early mortality rates for a variety of reasons. Early mortality (infant or juvenile) is of obvious importance to those interested in demography, but early mortality statistics are useful for life history analysis, paleodemography, and human adaptability studies, among others. In general, the form of mortality statistics is derived from demography, where chronological age is the gold standard for statistical calculation and comparison. However, there are numerous problems associated with the collection, analysis, and interpretation of early mortality statistics based on age, particularly for anthropological research, which is often conducted in small or non-calendrical-age numerate populations. The infant mortality rate (IMR), for example, is notoriously difficult to determine in populations where accurate accounting of age is not routine, and yet it is widely used in demography, public health, medicine, and social science research. Here we offer an alternative to age-based early mortality statistics that makes use of human biologists' interest in, and skill at, assessing human growth and development. Our proposal is to use developmental stages of juveniles instead of relying exclusively on age as the basis for mortality statistics. Death or survival according to a developmental stage (such as crawling or weaning) may provide more accurate data that are also more closely related to the cause of death. Developmental stages have the added advantage of putting infants and children back at the center of the discussion of early mortality by focusing on their activities in relation to their environment. A case study from the Turkana population of Kenya illustrates the use of developmental stages in describing early mortality.

Presentations

• Pike, I. L. (2016, November). Nurturing, Mother Blame, and the First 1000 Days of Life Agenda: A Kenyan Case Study. Hidden Evidence of Mothering Panel Kristin Hedges, Organizer. Minneapolis, MN: American Anthropological Association.
• Pike, I. L. (2015, Summer). Population Health, Medical Anthropology, and Applying Mixed-Methods to Marginalized Communities. Invited LectureInstitute of Gender, Anthropology, and African Studies, University of Nairobi.
• Pike, I. L. (2014, October). Left to die like cattle: violence, hunger, and dignity in a context of endemic violence. Department of Anthropology. Department of Anthropology Colloquium Series, Yale University.
• Pike, I. L. (2013, March). Intersections of Insecurity: Poverty, Hunger, and the Violence of Small Wars. Department of Anthropology Speaker Series. University of Kansas.
• Pike, I. L. (2012, 2012-09-01). Intersections of Insecurity: Poverty, Hunger, and the Impact of Small Wars in Northern Kenya. Carter Center for African Studies Colloquium Series. Carter Center for African Studies, University of Florida.
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  Invited Talk for Carter Center Speaker Series;Invited: Yes;Interdisciplinary: Yes;Type of Presentation: University;
• Pike, I. L., & Straight, B. (2012, 2012-04-01). Health Experiences of Elder Pastoralists in a Context of Endemic Violence. Human Biology Association. Portland, Oregon.
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  ;Your Role: data entry, analysis, wrote poster text;Refereed: Yes;Interdisciplinary: Yes;Other collaborative: Yes;Specify other collaborative: Collaborator at Western Michigan;Type of Presentation: Academic Conference;

Others

• Pike, I. L. (2015, February). Commentary on Hicks and Leonard "Developmental Systems and Inequality: Linking Evolutionary and Political Economic Theory in Biological Anthropology". Current Anthropology.
• Pike, I. L. (2014, January). Remembered Hunger in an Increasingly Obese World. Invited Essay, Anthropology News.