John Umbreit

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• Gann, C. J., Ferro, J. B., Umbreit, J., & Liaupsin, C. J. (2014). Effects of a Comprehensive Function-Based Intervention Applied Across Multiple Educational Settings. Remedial and Special Education, 35(1), 50-60.
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  Abstract: This study examined the feasibility and effectiveness of a comprehensive function-based intervention applied across multiple inclusive classroom settings. The participant was a middle school student diagnosed with Asperger Syndrome who exhibited chronic off-task behaviors across all academic environments. This study was conducted across two phases: (a) A descriptive functional behavior assessment (FBA) was conducted across all inclusive classroom environments and (b) a single, comprehensive function-based intervention was developed based on the results of the FBA followed by the implementation of a comprehensive function-based intervention in each inclusive classroom environment using a multiple probe design. The comprehensive function-based intervention markedly improved the participant's on-task behavior in each classroom setting. Furthermore, social validity ratings by each teacher revealed that the comprehensive, function-based intervention was preferable to the previously used classroom practices. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. © Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2013.
• Gann, C., Ferro, J. B., Umbreit, J., & Liaupsin, C. J. (2014). Determining the effect of a comprehensive function-based intervention applied across multiple educational settings. Remedial and Special Education, 35(1), 50-60.
• Hoge, M. R., Liaupsin, C. J., Umbreit, J., & Ferro, J. B. (2014). Examining Placement Considerations for Students With Emotional Disturbance Across Three Alternative Schools. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 24(4), 218-226.
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  Abstract: The continuum of educational environments exists to ensure the most appropriate and least restrictive educational setting for students with disabilities. One setting schools use to provide services to students with an emotional disturbance (ED) is an alternative school. How schools make decisions regarding student placement into and out of this setting lacks examination. This study identifies factors considered when making placements into and out of three alternative schools for students with ED. A mixed-methods approach was used to collect data from key stakeholders from each school involved with decision-making authority regarding student placement. Findings include (a) limited transitioning of students back to less restrictive settings, (b) greater number of factors considered during exit decisions from alternative schools than entry, and (c) student's return to a less restrictive setting not contingent on those factors considered when placing the student into the school. © Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2012.
• Hoge, M. R., Liaupsin, C. J., Umbreit, J., & Ferro, J. B. (2014). Examining placement considerations for students with emotional disturbance across three alternative schools.. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 24(4), 218-226.
• Janney, D. M., Umbreit, J., Ferro, J. B., Liaupsin, C. J., & Lane, K. L. (2013). The Effect of the Extinction Procedure in Function-Based Intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 15(2), 113-123.
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  Abstract: In this study, we examined the contribution of the extinction procedure in function-based interventions implemented in the general education classrooms of three at-risk elementary-aged students. Function-based interventions included antecedent adjustments, reinforcement procedures, and function-matched extinction procedures. Using a combined ABC and reversal phase design (A-B-A-B-C-B), a functional relation between the full intervention and dramatically improved levels of on-task behavior were clearly established. On removal of the extinction procedure, on-task behavior rapidly dropped to lower levels. Reinstatement of the full intervention occurred following the partial intervention condition. In every case, on-task levels rapidly improved. Using the Intervention Rating Profile-15 and Children's Intervention Rating Profile, acceptability ratings were highest for full intervention. Limitations and implications for further research are presented. © 2012 Hammill Institute on Disabilities.
• Whitford, D. K., Liaupsin, C. J., Umbreit, J., & Ferro, J. B. (2013). Implementation of a single comprehensive function-based intervention across multiple classrooms for a high school student. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4), 147-167.
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  Abstract: A comprehensive function-based intervention was developed to address the chronic, high levels of off-task behavior by a 15-year-old ninth grade Caucasian male with learning disabilities and ADHD. A descriptive FBA identified that the student's off-task behavior was reinforced by peer attention and task avoidance. Intervention involved the collaborative development of a single, comprehensive intervention that was implemented sequentially across three classes. When implemented, the intervention produced consistently high levels of on-task behavior in each class. Social validity data supported the acceptability of the comprehensive intervention. High levels of treatment integrity showed staff could collaborate and implement a comprehensive intervention. Implications and directions for further research are included.
• Liaupsin, C. J., Ferro, J. B., & Umbreit, J. (2012). Treatment integrity in intervention research: Models, measures, And future directions. Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities, 25, 301-322.
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  Abstract: Treatment integrity (TI; also known as fidelity of implementation, treatment fidelity, and procedural reliability) refers to the degree to which an intervention is implemented as intended. TI data provides evidence of the internal validity of a study; without TI data, one cannot attribute observed effects to an intervention or distinguish whether interventions that fail do so because of problems with the intervention, its delivery, or both. Unfortunately, the field of intervention research has seen limited progress in the assessment and reporting of TI over time. This chapter describes the development of models of TI across fields, options for measuring TI, and important issues yet to be resolved. ©2012 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
• Ali, E., MacFarland, S. Z., & Umbreit, J. (2011). Effectiveness of combining tangible symbols with the Picture Exchange Communication System to teach requesting skills to children with multiple disabilities including visual impairment. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 46(3), 425-435.
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  Abstract: The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) program used to teach functional requesting and commenting skills to people with disabilities (Bondy & Frost, 1993; Frost & Bondy, 2002). In this study, tangible symbols were added to PECS in teaching requesting to four students (ages 7-14) with multiple disabilities that included a visual impairment. First, an assessment was conducted to determine the preferred (i.e., reinforcing) and non-preferred items for each participant. Then, a multiple probe design across participants was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the adapted training. Data were collected across baseline, training and maintenance conditions, and generalization probes were conducted periodically throughout all conditions. All four participants learned requesting skills, generalized these skills to their classrooms, and maintained the skills after training. Recommendations are presented for future research regarding the use of adapted PECS with other AAC programs. © Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities.
• Turton, A. M., Umbreit, J., & Mathur, S. R. (2011). Systematic function-based intervention for adolescents with emotional and behavioral disorders in an alternative setting: Broadening the context. Behavioral Disorders, 36(2), 117-128.
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  Abstract: Three adolescents (ages 14-17) with emotional and behavioral disorders displayed chronic disruptive behavior in their self-contained classrooms at a self-contained alternative school. A descriptive functional behavioral assessment was conducted for each student. Data from file review, structured interviews, and direct observations were used to identify the functions of their disruptive behaviors. Then, function-based interventions were systematically constructed for each student and implemented for an extended period (nearly 6 weeks) within the most problematic situation in their classrooms. The interventions improved each student's behavior and the effects maintained during follow-up and generalized to instruction in a nonintervention classroom. Social validity data comparing the interventions to baseline practices revealed the function-based intervention had moderately higher social validity among teachers and substantially higher social validity among students.
• Wood, B. K., Ferro, J. B., Umbreit, J., & Liaupsin, C. J. (2011). Addressing the challenging behavior of young children through systematic function-based intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 30(4), 221-232.
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  Abstract: A decision model was used to systematically construct function-based interventions for the disruptive behaviors of three young children (ages 3.75-4.75 years) receiving special education services in inclusive preschool settings. The study was conducted in three phases. In Part 1, descriptive functional behavioral assessments (FBAs) were conducted. Each FBA included structured interviews and direct observations that were used to identify the functions of target behaviors. In Part 2, function-based interventions were constructed for each participant. In Part 3, these interventions were implemented within ongoing activities in their preschool classrooms. The study covered nearly 9 weeks. Baseline and intervention were conducted for 17 sessions (nearly 6 weeks). Follow-up data were collected weekly for an additional 3 weeks. The interventions, when implemented correctly, produced dramatic improvements in the students' behavior. Implications for future research are discussed. © 2011 Hammill Institute on Disabilities.
• Nahgahgwon, K. N., Umbreit, J., Liaupsin, C. J., & Turton, A. M. (2010). Function-based planning for young children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 33(4), 537-559.
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  Abstract: This study examined the efficacy of function-based intervention for young children at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) in inclusive environments. Participants were two kindergarten students and one first-grade student, all of whom exhibited chronic disruptive behavior in the classroom despite previous interventions implemented through their school's existing behavioral support system. The study was conducted across three phases: (a) a descriptive functional behavioral assessment (FBA) was completed for each student, (b) a systematic process was used to construct and then test individualized interventions, and (c) the interventions were then provided to each student during his most problematic classroom activity using a multiple baseline design. Classroom interventions substantially improved the on-task behavior of each student, and social validity ratings by teachers showed strong preference for the function-based intervention over the previously used classroom practices. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are presented.
• Underwood, M. A., Umbreit, J., & Liaupsin, C. (2009). Efficacy of a systematic process for designing function-based interventions for adults in a community setting. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44(1), 25-38.
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  Abstract: This study examined the efficacy of a systematic process for matching behavioral interventions to assessed function(s) of problem behavior with adults with developmental disabilities in a community-based day program. Previous applications of the technique were found to be effective with school-age students in classroom settings. Participants were three adults (ages 48-63) with developmental disabilities who displayed long-standing inappropriate social interactions. The study was conducted in two phases. In Phase 1, descriptive FBAs were conducted. Each FBA included structured interviews and direct observations that were used to identify the functions of target behaviors. In Phase 2, function-based interventions were systematically constructed for each participant, and then implemented for an extended period (8 weeks) within ongoing activities at their day program. The mean response rates of appropriate social interaction increased immediately when intervention was introduced, whereas the mean response rates of inappropriate social interaction decreased. Data on treatment integrity (level of implementation) were collected for every session and documented that the interventions were implemented with high levels of fidelity. In addition, staff gave the function-based interventions high acceptability ratings, indicating they viewed the interventions as socially valid and preferable to the procedures they used before intervention. © Division on Developmental Disabilities.
• Blair, K. C., Umbreit, J., Dunlap, G., & Jung, G. (2007). Promoting inclusion and peer participation through assessment-based intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27(3), 134-147.
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  Abstract: In the current investigation, the processes of functional assessment and function-based intervention were used to resolve the severe challenging behaviors of a boy with autism and mental retardation in an inclusive kindergarten in South Korea. A multicomponent intervention was developed in collaboration with classroom personnel and was implemented entirely by the teacher and an aide in the context of a multiple-baseline-across-activities experimental design. Results were empirical validation of hypotheses derived from the functional assessment, as well as lower levels of challenging behaviors and increased rates of appropriate behaviors associated with the intervention. Positive interactions with a designated classroom peer and with the teacher also increased. The findings are discussed as contributions to the growing literature on functional assessment and function-based supports and the importance of promoting successful inclusive experiences for young children with disabilities.
• Turton, A. M., Umbreit, J., Liaupsin, C. J., & Bartley, J. (2007). Function-based intervention for an adolescent with emotional and behavioral disorders in Bermuda: Moving across culture. Behavioral Disorders, 33(1), 23-32.
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  Abstract: Saida, a 16-year-old girl in Bermuda, attended a special alternative high school program for students with serious behavior problems. She had been receiving special education for her behavioral problems since the age of 5. Saida regularly used profanity in response to teacher directives, particularly in social studies class. A functional behavioral assessment identified that profanity served a dual function for Saida; that is, it gained attention from staff and enabled her to avoid doing class assignments. An intervention decision model developed by Umbreit, Ferro, Liaupsin, and Lane (2007) was used to develop a function-based intervention. This intervention was first tested through brief reversal probes and then implemented extensively in social studies class. Implementation of the intervention dramatically reduced Saida's use of profanity and correspondingly increased her use of a replacement behavior (indicating "yes" or "no" verbally or by nodding). Social validity ratings by multiple staff members, Saida, and a classmate indicated high acceptability for the intervention. Implications for further studies of intervention design and research across culture are included.
• Wood, B. K., Umbreit, J., Liaupsin, C. J., & Gresham, F. M. (2007). A treatment integrity analysis of function-based intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(4), 105-120.
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  Abstract: This study examined whether direct, interval-by-interval measures of treatment integrity would make it possible to distinguish whether equivocal intervention results could be attributed to the intervention itself, or to poor implementation. Josh, an eight-year-old 3 rd grader, performed at or slightly above his peers' academically, yet engaged in problem behaviors (yelling, throwing objects, slamming his desk into a peer's desk) on a daily basis. A functional behavioral assessment (FBA) identified these behaviors were maintained by gaining attention (positive reinforcement) and escaping from certain assignments (negative reinforcement). A function-based intervention was then developed, tested, and implemented during ongoing activities in the classroom. On-task behavior occurred throughout more than 91% of the intervals when the intervention was implemented correctly, compared to only 9% when it was implemented incorrectly. Positive treatment acceptability ratings were obtained from both Josh and his teacher, even though she continued to implement inconsistently throughout the study. Implications for both research and practice are presented.
• Blair, K. C., Liaupsin, C. J., Umbreit, J., & Kweon, G. (2006). Function-based intervention to support the inclusive placements of young children in korea. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41(1), 48-57.
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  Abstract: This study examined whether FBA and function-based intervention methods developed in the U.S. would be effective if applied in a public school classroom in South Korea. Participants were three young children with severe mental retardation whose severe challenging behaviors put them at risk for removal from an inclusive kindergarten program. The study was conducted in two phases, and all conditions were conducted within the context of naturally occurring classroom activities. In Phase 1, FBAs identified that all three children behaved better when they had access to preferred activities and very poorly when they were engaged in non-preferred activities. In Phase 2, a function-based intervention in which instruction was embedded within preferred activities produced improvements in the behavior of all three children. Probes conducted at the children's residence showed good generality to a different setting. Finally, on a social validity questionnaire, teachers who implemented the intervention gave very positive ratings to the FBA and function-based intervention process. © Division on Developmental Disabilities.
• Liaupsin, C. J., Umbreit, J., Ferro, J. B., Urso, A., & Upreti, G. (2006). Improving academic engagement through systematic, function-based intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 29(4), 573-591.
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  Abstract: Fiona was a 14-year-old 7 th-grader whose academic history, frequent behavior problems, and low levels of academic engagement put her at-risk for academic failure. This study's purpose was to examine the effectiveness of a systematic process for identifying the function of her problem behaviors and designing interventions that directly addressed that function. The study was conducted in two phases. Data from a descriptive functional assessment (Phase 1) were used to develop function-based interventions that were implemented in multiple classes (Phase 2). Substantial increases in academic engagement resulted.
• Umbreit, J., Lane, K. L., & Dejud, C. (2004). Improving classroom behavior by modifying task difficulty: Effects of increasing the difficulty of too-easy tasks. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 13-20.
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  Abstract: This study examined the effects of increasing task difficulty when inadequately challenging tasks are assigned. Jason, a 10-year-old, typically developing Caucasian boy, attended a fourth-grade general education classroom at a public elementary school. During independent academic assignments in math and reading, Jason often talked with other students, kicked his seat or the one in front of him, or wandered around the classroom. His teacher considered these behaviors to be very disruptive. The study was conducted in two phases. In Phase 1, a functional behavioral assessment identified that Jason's problem behaviors (a) occurred when he had completed his assignment and (b) resulted in his gaining access to preferred activities. In Phase 2, a function-based intervention (providing more challenging academic assignments) resulted in improvements in Jason's behavior. Both Jason and his teacher gave the intervention very positive acceptability ratings.
• Armendariz, F., & Umbreit, J. (1999). Using active responding to reduce disruptive behavior in a general education classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(3), 152-158.
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  Abstract: Abstract: Active responding (in the form of response cards) was employed during a math lecture in a third-grade classroom to evaluate its effect on disruptive behavior. Two conditions, conventional lecture with hand raising and response cards, were alternated in a reversal (ABA) design. During baseline, the teacher used a conventional lecture with hand raising method, which consisted primarily of lecturing and then asking one child who had raised his or her hand to answer a question. During the active responding (response card) condition, all the students had to respond to the teacher's question by writing an answer on individual cards. Disruptive behavior decreased dramatically when the response cards were used and increased again when the conventional hand raising method was reinstated.
• Blair, K. C., Umbreit, J., & Bos, C. S. (1999). Using functional assessment and children's preferences to improve the behavior of young children with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 24(2), 151-166.
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  Abstract: Functional assessments conducted individually with four young children (ages 60-63 months) with behavioral disorders indicated that their behavior improved substantially when they engaged in preferred activities. An intervention in which these activities were imbedded within their existing curricula produced dramatic reductions in their problem behaviors. Probes conducted in nontargeted activities showed good generality with these children and with two nontargeted peers. Substantial increases in positive teacher interaction also occurred when the intervention was implemented. Treatment acceptability data indicated that the teachers strongly preferred the intervention over the instructional and behavior management procedures they had used previously. Finally, procedural reliability data indicated that the teachers could implement the intervention procedures properly even with limited training and support.
• Lane, K. L., Umbreit, J., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. E. (1999). Functional assessment research on students with or at risk for EBD: 1990 to the present. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(2), 101-111.
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  Abstract: The present article reports information resulting from a review of 19 articles reporting studies conducted in the 1990s with a total of 62 participants who were identified as having, or being at risk for, emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Studies were included in this review only if (a) a functional assessment was conducted, (b) the participants were identified as having, or being at risk for, EBD, and (c) the study was published after 1989. Findings indicate that functional assessment research is being conducted with young children in special and general education settings with the use of single-case design methodologies. A review is made of the nine articles that reported findings from functional assessment-based intervention studies. The review suggests that antecedent-based interventions, primarily curricular modifications, are most often examined. Results indicate that present research methodology includes important components essential to making valid conclusions from outcomes, and in generalizing findings. Directions for future research are discussed.
• Romer, E. F., & Umbreit, J. (1998). The effects of family-centered service coordination: A social validity study. Journal of Early Intervention, 21(2), 95-110.
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  Abstract: This study examined if a family's level of satisfaction improves when the service coordination they receive adheres to a family-centered model. The participants included three service coordinators and nine families participating in Part H of IDEA. For 1 year, families reported what services they had received and their level of satisfaction with the services. A multiple-baseline design across subjects was used and an individual assistance condition was added when, following training, none of the service coordinators adequately implemented the model. Results indicate a high degree of family satisfaction and a low degree of dissatisfaction when the model was adequately implemented. In contrast, when the model was not adequately implemented, families reported very little satisfaction and a high degree of dissatisfaction.
• Umbreit, J. (1997). Eliminating Challenging Behaviors in Multiple Environments Throughout the Entire Day. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 32(4), 321-330.
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  Abstract: This study examined the potential of functional assessment-based intervention applied in multiple natural environments throughout the entire day. Helen, a 25-year-old woman affected by deaf-blindness and severe retardation, lived in a supervised apartment and attended a day activity program for several hours each weekday. For many years, Helen had frequently aggressed toward others, destroyed property (often resulting in injury to herself or others), and run away, often into potentially dangerous environments (e.g., a parking lot). These acts were always preceded by a request that a staff member exert brief but firm pressure to one of her wrists. Assessment and intervention involved a two-phase study. Phase 1 (functional assessment) included structured interviews and observations, hypothesis development, and hypothesis testing throughout the day within the context of naturally occurring routines and activities. This process identified that Helen's challenging behaviors were attention-motivated. During Phase 2 (intervention), a staff member increased the amount of attention Helen received by interacting more frequently with her. The intervention immediately eliminated all of Helen's challenging behaviors throughout the data collection period (more than 8 months) and was easily incorporated into the routines and activities that typically occurred throughout the day. Equally important, the intervention received very high treatment acceptability ratings from all of the staff who were responsible for its implementation.
• Umbreit, J. (1997). Elimination of Problem Behavior at Work Through an Assessment-Based Antecedent Intervention. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 32(2), 129-137.
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  Abstract: Maria, a 26-year-old young woman with severe retardation, worked in a sheltered workshop. About a month before the study began, Maria started urinating in her pants during each of the three regularly scheduled breaktimes that occurred each day. Maria wet herself only during breaks and, according to her mother, never wet herself at home. Assessment and intervention involved a two-phase study. Phase 1 (functional assessment) included structured interviews and observations, hypothesis development, and hypothesis testing within ongoing activities at work. This process identified that Maria's wetting was attention-motivated. During Phase 2 (intervention), attention was provided frequently while Maria helped a staff member complete routine breaktime activities (e.g., setting up new tasks). This intervention completely eliminated Maria's wetting. Furthermore, the effect occurred immediately, lasted for at least several months, and was easily incorporated into ongoing routines within the workshop. Equally important, the intervention received very high treatment acceptability ratings from all three of the staff who were responsible for its implementation.
• Umbreit, J., & Blair, K. (1997). Using structural analysis to facilitate treatment of aggression and noncompliance in a young child at-risk for behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 22(2), 75-86.
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  Abstract: This study examined the use of structural analysis as part of assessment-based intervention. The participant, JB, was a 4-year-old boy whose noncompliance and aggressive behavior put him at risk for behavioral disorders and expulsion from his childcare center. The study was conducted in two phases. Phase 1 involved an assessment that included structured interviews and observations, hypothesis development, and hypothesis testing within the context of typically occurring routines and activities in the childcare. Phase 2 consisted of an assessment-based intervention that was implemented by the childcare staff. The intervention immediately reduced JB's noncompliance and aggressive behavior. These gains were maintained throughout the study and received high acceptability ratings from the staff who carried out the treatment. Implications are presented regarding the efficacy of interventions based on data gained through structural analyses of problem behavior to prevent the development of behavioral disorders.
• Umbreit, J. (1996). Assessment and Intervention for the Problem Behaviors of an Adult at Home. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 21(1), 31-38.
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  Abstract: Damon, a 37-year-old man with severe retardation (IQ = 39), lived at home with his mother and, for the past 15 years, had worked in a sheltered workshop. Incidents of problem behavior had been rare both at home and at work. Two weeks before this study started, Damon's behavior changed suddenly. When asked to get up in the morning to get ready for work, he yelled, "No" and threw things at his mother. If she persisted, his behavior escalated into hitting, kicking, and swearing. This study was conducted in two phases. The first phase, which combined descriptive and experimental (analogue) methods, indicated that Damon's problem behaviors were escape motivated, but did not indicate the specific activities or conditions from which Damon wanted to escape. The second phase included additional descriptive assessment with the workshop staff, and hypothesis development and hypothesis testing and intervention within naturally occurring routines at home. These procedures identified that Damon's problem behaviors did not occur when he was able to participate in a more preferred activity (a day activity program), whether or not he was allowed to choose the preferred activity. The resultant intervention immediately eliminated all problem behavior and received very high treatment acceptability ratings from Damon's mother, the person who was directly responsible for its implementation in the home.
• Umbreit, J. (1996). Assessment and intervention for the problem behaviors of an adult at home. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 21(1), 31-38.
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  Abstract: Damon, a 37-year-old man with severe retardation (IQ = 39), lived at home with his mother and, for the past 15 years, had worked in a sheltered workshop. Incidents of problem behavior had been rare both at home and at work. Two weeks before this study started, Daman's behavior changed suddenly. When asked to get up in the morning to get ready for work, he yelled, "No" and threw things at his mother. If she persisted, his behavior escalated into hitting, kicking, and swearing. This study was conducted in two phases. The first phase, which combined descriptive and experimental (analogue) methods, indicated that Daman's problem behaviors were escape motivated, but did not indicate the specific activities or conditions from which Damon wanted to escape. The second phase included additional descriptive assessment with the workshop staff, and hypothesis development and hypothesis testing and intervention within naturally occurring routines at home. These procedures identified that Damon's problem behaviors did not occur when he was able to participate in a more preferred activity (a day activity program), whether or not he was allowed to choose the preferred activity. The resultant intervention immediately eliminated all problem behavior and received very high treatment acceptability ratings from Daman's mother, the person who was directly responsible for its implementation in the home. Copyright 1996 by The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps.
• Umbreit, J. (1996). Functional analysis of disruptive behavior in an inclusive classroom. Journal of Early Intervention, 20(1), 18-29.
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  Abstract: Nate, a 5-year-old boy with mild mental retardation (I.Q. = 60), frequently displayed disruptive behavior at school. Assessment and intervention involved a brief functional (analog) analysis, a curriculum-based assessment, and an intervention implemented by teaching staff in the classroom. The intervention virtually eliminated all disruptive behavior and resulted in appropriate behavior nearly all of the time. Furthermore, the effect occurred almost immediately and lasted for at least several months. Treatment acceptability ratings completed by the teaching staff indicated that the assessment-based intervention had very high acceptability, whereas the interventions they had previously used (brief redirection and ignoring) had very low acceptability.
• Umbreit, J., & Blair, K. (1996). The Effects of Preference, Choice, and Attention on Problem Behavior at School. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 31(2), 151-161.
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  Abstract: Reggie was an 11-year-old boy with moderate-to-severe retardation, seizures, and behavior disorders, who frequently engaged in problem behavior at school. These behaviors included: making a loud, high-pitched noise ("Eee"); hitting staff, peers, and objects; throwing objects; laying down on the floor; running away; biting others; and spitting. The study was conducted in two phases. The first phase focused on assessment and included structured interviews and observations, hypothesis development, and hypothesis testing within ongoing school activities. The interviews and observations led to hypotheses that Reggie would behave better when he (a) was engaged in preferred activities, (b) was given choice, and (c) received attention frequently while he was engaged in appropriate behavior. Experimental analyses confirmed these hypotheses. The second phase examined the effectiveness of an assessment-based intervention that was implemented by the teaching staff. The intervention virtually eliminated all problem behavior and resulted in appropriate behavior nearly all of the time. In addition, the effect occurred immediately, lasted for at least several months, and generalized to three non-targeted (generalization) problem behaviors. In addition, the assessment-based intervention received high acceptability ratings from the staff; in contrast, the methods they had used previously (time-out, prompting, and redirection) received low acceptability ratings.
• Umbreit, J., & Ostrow, L. S. (1980). The fetal alcohol syndrome. Mental Retardation, 18(3), 109-111.
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  PMID: 7242342;Abstract: The fetal alcohol syndrome is a recently identified cause of disability in children. An overview of the syndrome, historical evidence, specific findings with respect to mental retardation, growth failure, and associated anomalies, and a theory of possible causation are presented. Developmental programming, medical, research, and social implications are also included.