Pamela B Vandiver

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• Tobin, B., & Vandiver, P. (2013). Chemical exposure in University of Arizona laboratory spaces. Materials Science and Technology Conference and Exhibition 2013, MS and T 2013, 2, 1028-1034.
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  Abstract: Chemistry and Materials Science have been studied in the same buildings at the University of Arizona for over 70 years. In this time, some substances in common use have been found to be hazardous, while many new substances have come into use, sometimes without studies to determine long term health effects. This project seeks to develop methodology to examine and compare the accumulation of chemicals in student workspaces and laboratories at the University of Arizona. This Project has used a variety of analytical techniques, including x-ray fluorescence, and energy dispersive spectroscopy to analyze samples from laboratory spaces such as: sink drains, countertops, fume hoods, and air filters to determine substances students could contact. These methods have identified contamination from mercury, chromium, and lead, among other substances present in student laboratories. Identification of these toxins is an important step in improving laboratory safety. Copyright © 2011 MS&T'13®.
• Frame, L., DeSorda, D. B., Chiang, Y., & Vandiver, P. (2011). Methods of faience manufacture in antiquity: Investigation of colorants and technological processes. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1319, 43-54.
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  Abstract: Faience production methods include efflorescence, direct glaze application, and cementation glazing. However, similar processing has been used with a variety of other materials, such as glazed monolithic quartz, ground and re-fired faience, and steatite bodies. Furthermore, faience technology has been linked by similar processing to glass, synthetic pigment and glazing technologies. Here we reinforce these cross-craft relationships by comparing the range of similar functioning chemical elements in faience and glazed artifacts from a variety of archaeological sites that range from the Indus Valley to the Mediterranean. This broad comparative method based primarily on x-ray fluorescence analysis reveals trends in faience production, relationships with metallurgical technologies, and aspects of processing that provide areas of study that may be considered more closely in the future. © 2011 Materials Research Society.
• Vandiver, P. B., Weidong, L. i., Luis, J., Reedy, C. L., & Frame, L. D. (2011). Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings: Preface. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1319, xi-xiii.
• Vandiver, P., & Gruhl, A. V. (2011). The earliest bead manufacture in the Americas at the Paleo-Indian Jones-Miller site, Wray, Colorado. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1319, 67-80.
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  Abstract: Analysis of the composition and microstructure of a Paleo-Indian micro-bead fragment from the Jones-Miller bison-kill site in Wray, Colorado, USE, and dated by radiocarbon testing to 10,200 years ago, showed that fine-motor movements were used to execute a sequence of manufacture on a singular bead. The process involved cleaving a soft, bedded oil shale, diagonally scraping a tubular surface and double-drilling a hole. The last operation caused the bead to fracture, after which it was deposited in a hearth. The raw material consists of bedded clay, silt, opal and quartz particles cemented with carbonaceous material. The presence of similar locally available oil shale with opal inclusions indicates that the raw material was acquired near the Jones-Miller site. Because of high cultural value and small size, only non-destructive analytical techniques were used to characterize the bead, including optical microscopy, UV-VIS, PIXE and XRD. Some 50-micron, previously detached particles were tested by SEM-EDS and compared to local clayey materials, both heat-treated and non-heat-treated, to show that no heat treatment sufficient to cause sintering had occurred. A resource survey in the area around the site and 50 miles to the south produced several comparative materials that were tested by the same methods given above as well as the added methods of DTA and refiring tests. © 2011 Materials Research Society.
• Yang, M. -., Winkler, A. M., Barton, J. K., & Vandiver, P. B. (2009). Using optical coherence tomography to examine the subsurface morphology of Chinese glazes. Archaeometry, 51(5), 808-821.
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  Abstract: Optical coherence tomography (OCT), a new method for ceramics research, is a non-destructive, three-dimensional tomography system, which provides subsurface morphology visualization of samples based on the refractive index or dielectric constant differences in the target specimen. In this study, seven shards from different Chinese kilns of Song and Yuan dynasties (10-14th centuries) were scanned to visualize the subsurface morphology of their glazes. The images revealed unique phase assemblage modes in different samples. The results suggest that OCT may be used to identify ceramics and provide information about their manufacturing technology. © University of Oxford, 2008.
• Favela, J. I., & Vandiver, P. (2008). The technology that Began Steuben Glass. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1047, 263-275.
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  Abstract: Frederick Carder popularized art glass in America and is remembered as the founder and head of Steuben Glass Works. Carder, a designer and glass technologist trained in England, established the factory in Corning, New York, in 1903. The factory produced colored and highly decorated glass vessels that competed with but were less expensive than those of Tiffany Studios. To understand the differences in technology between the competing products of Carder and Tiffany, especially the type called "aurene," we analyzed and compared opalescent white glass formulations, iridized with thin-film, golden luster decoration and some examples decorated with combed trails containing silver. The methods of analysis are electron beam microprobe analysis and scanning-electron microscopy with simultaneous energy dispersive x-ray analysis. Analytical results show that Carder produced an affordable product by standardized processing that included opalescent compositions in a narrow range of soda-lime-silicate and lead-alkali-silicate glasses with calcium phosphate or boneash as an inexpensive but reliable opacifier, quite thick flashed "golden" lustrous coatings made from tin oxide or tin and silver, and relatively rough velvet- to satin-textured, iridescent, thin-film coatings that were formed during multiple rapid heat treatments. © 2008 Materials Research Society.
• Frame, L. D., & Vandiver, P. B. (2008). Variability in copper and bronze casting technology as seen at Bronze Age Godin Tepe, Iran. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1047, 253-261.
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  Abstract: Excavations at Godin Tepe - a Bronze Age site in the Kangavar Valley of the west-central region of Iran - yielded a metal assemblage of 202 artifacts of which 91 are curated at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada. The assemblage consists of decorative objects (figurines, vessels, bracelets, rings, needles, pins) as well as weapons and tools (chisels, blades, daggers, and projectile points). Secondary dendrite arm spacing was measured on polished and etched metallographic sections of the eight samples that display cast structures. Cooling rates were calculated base on these measurements along with the average composition of the metal. Comparison to reference data shows that these cooling rates group into ranges typical of quenched and furnace cooled environments. In addition, the maximum temperatures reached during smelting and casting were estimated based on the microstructure and composition of technical ceramics and slag fragments. Composition and microstructure information was obtained for these artifacts with the use of scanning electron microscopy and electron beam microprobe. © 2008 Materials Research Society.
• Vandiver, P. B. (2008). A ceramic plaque representing a part of the Moses Panel by Lorenzo Ghiberti in the East Baptistery Doors (Florence, Italy). Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1047, 71-88.
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  Abstract: A ceramic plaque was studied that depicts the figurative part of the lower half of the Moses Panel from the gilt bronze doors that Lorenzo Ghiberti and his workshop installed on the east side of the San Giovanni Baptistery in Florence, Italy. The doors were completed in 1452, and thermoluminescence dating of two areas of the ceramic relief panel gave a broad, but consistent fifteenth century date. No differences were found in the composition, microstructure or phase assemblage of the two stylistically distinct parts of the ceramic panel. Microscopy and radiography were used to reconstruct the forming methods and sequence of steps in manufacture and restoration. © 2008 Materials Research Society.
• Vandiver, P. B., McCarthy, B., Tykot, R. H., Ruvalcaba-Sil, J. L., & Casadio, F. (2008). Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings: Preface. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1047, xiii-xvi.
• Vandiver, P. B., Raftery, H., Ratcliffe, S., Moskalik, B. T., Andaloro, M., Sandler, K., & Retamoza, A. (2008). Replications of critical technological processes and the use of replicates as characterization standards: An experiment in undergraduate education. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 1047, 353-372.
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  Abstract: The technology of artifacts is analyzed and reconstructed by comparison with known craft practices, the physical and chemical constraints imposed by the raw materials, and the sequence and steps for processing those materials to achieve certain optical and mechanical properties. Understanding of craft knowledge is best pursued by practice, coupled with technical analysis. Six case studies of hands-on, undergraduate student laboratory projects are presented. The studies include testing parameters for the making of stenciled hand images similar to those at caves such as Gargas from the Upper Paleolithic period in France, the variation in processing required to produce Egyptian blue pigments and objects, controlling composition to form either green or turquoise-blue colors in Islamic lead-containing glazes, optimizing the ratio of various pigments to gum Arabic medium in tomb paintings to evaluate application and durability, molding East Asian gokok beads in imitation of jade, and making and radiographing a mock-up of a damaged statue on the façade at the San Xavier Mission as a standard for comparison with the original. In each case, various parameters are varied to model the appearance, structure and composition of an object, and the students benefited from the experience of developing research questions and from their involvement in original research projects. © 2008 Materials Research Society.
• Mass, J., & Vandiver, P. (2005). On recovering and re-discovering craft. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 852, 361-373.
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  Abstract: A forum that integrates workshop and laboratory practice provides a significant focus for questions of process. One such point of interaction was a workshop that aimed at establishing relationships among several materials when color is introduced directly into the material, as opposed to applied to the surface as a decorative coating. Color was introduced into clay, glass and metal through direct mixing, assembly, reforming and surface treatment. Examples of millifiori glass, neriage ceramic, and shakudo and mokume metal are presented. Workshop participants were able to have some hands-on experience with the techniques demonstrated by artists and artisans, and this interaction informed our discussion of the investigations of the appearance, processing and conservation of art objects and archaeological artifacts. © 2005 Materials Research Society.
• Vandiver, P. B. (2005). Craft knowledge as an intangible cultural property: A case study of Samarkand tiles and traditional potters in Uzbekistan. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 852, 331-352.
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  Abstract: Reverse engineering past craft technologies involves using the basics of materials science and engineering to a new end: their preservation and continuation. Examples are presented of the glazed tile technologies of Samarkand, Bukhara and other Silk Route cities of Uzbekistan that date from the thirteenth century A.D. but that continue to the present. The UNESCO charter for the preservation of Intangible Cultural Properties has enlightened the goals and results of the research and has linked together archaeological materials research and conservation science in an exciting new partnership. © 2005 Materials Research Society.
• Vandiver, P. B., Mass, J. L., & Murray, A. (2005). Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings: Preface. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 852, xix-xxi.
• Henrickson, R. C., Vandiver, P. B., & Blackman, M. J. (2002). Lustrous black fine ware at Gordion, Turkey: A distinctive sintered slip technology. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 712, 391-397.
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  Abstract: Potters at ancient Gordion (Turkey) produced a distinctive fine ware with a black glossy finish during at least the period 700-500 BC. Visual examination suggested a sintered slip finish. Study using SEM, EDS, INAA, x-ray diffraction, and refiring has confirmed this hypothesis. The technology was characterized by a relatively low firing temperature, large amounts of flux, a darkening wash added over the slip, and use of both calcareous and non-calcareous clays.
• Hooper, J. J., & Vandiver, P. B. (2002). The technological tradition of Korean black ware and the indigenous development of glaze technology in Korea during the first millennium A.D.. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 712, 357-364.
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  Abstract: A collection of 70 black ware shards excavated from 16 kiln sites in South Korea and dating from the 3rd-13th centuries were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and electron beam microprobe analysis to determine the range of technological variability in composition, microstructure and firing temperature. Materials analysis provided a means of deconstructing and reconstructing the development of (1) consistent high temperature firing, (2) unintentional ash glazing on black ware, (3) intentionally applied black glazes, (4) the relationship of grey and black glazes to green and white ones. This paper addresses issues of the influence of high-firing technology on glaze development and the development and continuity of the black glaze tradition. In addition, the black glazed Onggi ware of the late 19th century was compared to the earlier black-glaze tradition, once stabilized in composition in the Koryo dynasty, and results suggest a technological connection with the earlier tradition.
• Vandiver, P. B. (2002). Recovering and re-discovering craft. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 712, 535-543.
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  Abstract: Many studies have shown that craft involves know-how, practice and problem solving that represents activities that can be recovered by study of various artifact assemblages and contexts within archaeological sites. The types of conclusions differ with nature of the research question. sample size and its variability, methods of study and organization of collecting in the field, as well as the results of areal study: ethnographic information, resource survey and landscape reconstruction. Questions generated through analysis of materials, processes and properties often generate questions that can only be answered by replicative experiments of all aspects of a chaine operatoire, only part of it or only those critical aspects about which questions remain. The integration of the laboratory/workshop results with the archaeological evidence, both objects and context, can lead to a re-discovery of craft. The conjectured details of materials composition and structure, sequence of processing, properties, performance or use essentially reverse engineer the typical way that modern materials research is conducted. This paper aims at developing a widening dialogue about craft know-how among materials scientists working in museums and artist-craftsmen. To learn about our history and the human condition is not just to analyze and preserve the objects and artifacts, but also to investigate and understand the knowledge and skills used to produce and use them-- essentially this is the preservation of intangible cultural heritage and culture history.
• Vandiver, P. B., & Vasil'ev, S. A. (2002). A 16,000 year-old ceramic human-figurine from Maina, Russia. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 712, 421-431.
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  Abstract: The ceramic technology used to construct and fire an image of a human figurine excavated from a 16,000 year old layer at the archaeological site of Maina on the Yenesei River in southern Siberia is reconstructed using x-radiography, x-ray diffraction, optical and scanning electron microscopy with simultaneous energy dispersive x-ray analysis, and electron beam microprobe analysis. Evidence is provided from the archaeological excavation as well as radiocarbon dating. Comparative studies of the clayey soils at the site add contextual and environmental evidence to establish this remarkable technology as having been carried out at the site using a local clay-loan resource.
• Vandiver, P. B., Goodway, M., & Mass, J. L. (2002). Archaeo-materials research: An introduction. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 712, xxi-xxvii.
• Vandiver, P. B., Goodway, M., & Mass, J. L. (2002). Symposium Proceedings: Symposium II Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology VI: Preface. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 712, xiii-xv.
• Vandiver, P. (2001). The role of materials research in ceramics and archaeology. Annual Review of Materials Science, 31, 373-385.
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  Abstract: Materials research has been applied successfully to the study of archaeological ceramics for the last fifty years. To learn about our history and the human condition is not just to analyze and preserve the objects but also to investigate and understand the knowledge and skills used to produce and use them. Many researchers have probed the limits and methods of such studies, always mindful that a glimpse at ancient reality lies in the details of time and place, context of finds, and experimentally produced data, usually compared with standards that were collected in an equivalent ethnographic setting or that were fabricated in a laboratory in order to elucidate the critical questions in a technology that could be understood in no other way. The basis of most studies of ancient technology has been established as microstructure; composition and firing; methods and sequence of manufacture; differentiation of use; use-wear and post-depositional processes; technological variability that can be interpreted as a pattern of stasis or innovation, which can be related to cultural continuity or change; and interpretation that can involve technology, subsistence trade, organization, and symbolic group- and self-definition.
• Vandiver, P. B. (2001). Preserving art through the ages. MRS Bulletin, 26(1), 13-14.
• Klein, S., Hauptmann, A., & Vandiver, P. B. (1997). Refractory ceramics from an iron age bronze melting workshop at Khirbet edh-Dharih, Jordan. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 462, 135-142.
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  Abstract: An excavation at Khirbet edh-Dharih implemented by the Institut Francais D'Archaeologie du Proche-Orient brought forth a few archaeometallurgical remains such as lumps of bronze, slags, and refractory ceramic fragments. Khirbet edh-Dharih is located in Jordan, near the Feinan area at Wadi Arabah. The Feinan area is well known as a major supplier of copper in the Near East's history from the Chalcolithic to the Roman period. The remains from Khirbet edh-Dharih were dated from the Iron Age II, and they are pointing to a workshop for further treatment of copper from Feinan. Khirbet edh-Dharih is the first bronze melting site excavated in the Feinan copper district.
• McCarthy, B. E., Vandiver, P. B., & Kruger, J. (1997). Study of the role of heterogeneities in the initial stages of corrosion of glazes using dynamic imaging microellipsometry (DIM). Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 462, 31-38.
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  Abstract: Common processes used in glazed ceramic production often result in a glaze with a heterogeneous microstructure. Heterogeneities may he due to residual batch materials, intentionally added colorants and opacifiers and/or the products of devitrification and phase separation. To study the effect of heterogeneities in the corrosion process, dynamic imaging microellipsometry was used in-situ in aqueous solutions to measure spatially and temporally resolved changes in the surface of glasses (model glazes). The measurements showed increased durability near inclusions. Residual stress fields surrounding the heterogeneities influenced the results. Decoupling of chemical and mechanical factors causing this increased durability was not possible.
• Vandiver, P., & Chia, S. (1997). Pottery technology from Bukit Tengkorak, a 3000-5000 year old site in Borneo, Malaysia. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 462, 269-277.
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  Abstract: Bukit Tengkorak is a Neolithic period rock shelter complex and prehistoric pottery production site in southeastern Sabah in Borneo, Malaysia. The main archaeological materials excavated revealed large deposits of clays that were brought to the shelter to be used as raw material for making pottery. Five thousand pottery sherds formed the main portion of the finds followed with 1500 stone artifacts. The large quantities of molluscs comprised mainly marine varieties while fish and animal bones added to a total of about 150 kg. The ecological, geomorphological and archaeological evidence suggested that the site was used in prehistoric times as a Neolithic pottery making site and stone tool producing site by marine-adapted people.
• Butterfield, D. O., & Vandiver, P. (1995). Microdots as a means of marking and tracking artifacts. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 352, 181-186.
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  Abstract: Scanning electron microscopy with simultaneous energy dispersive x-ray analysis was used to characterize microdots to assess their suitability for the identification and tracking of artifacts. They were found comparable to commercial state-of-the-art microfilm and microfiche which are known to be durable for about 20 years without postprocessing treatment to stabilize them.
• Crane, B. D., Blackman, J., & Vandiver, P. B. (1995). Continuity, adaptation and resistance: the cultural contexts of the manufacture, distribution and use of African American pottery in eighteenth-century Charleston, South Carolina. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 352, 539-551.
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  Abstract: Analysis of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century earthenware sherds found on the site of the Heyward-Washington House in Charleston, South Carolina has provided important clues concerning the manufacture, trade and use of a poorly understood tradition of African American pottery. These hand built, low-fired earthenwares, which archaeologists call colono wares, are abundant on archaeological sites, but they are virtually unknown in the historical record. Analyses included neutron activation analysis, xeroradiography, and petrographic analysis in addition to visual inspection. These data suggested that colono wares were transported to Charleston from rural plantations, where their manufacture was part of a widespread, informal cottage industry. The manufacture and use of this pottery appears to reflect the development of African American culture as a creole culture which drew upon a wide variety of traditions, reinventing and recombining these elements in ways designed to cope with the rigors of slavery.
• Dunsmuir, J. H., Vandiver, P. B., Chianelli, R. R., Deckman, H. W., & Hardenbergh, J. H. (1995). X-ray microtomography of ceramic artifacts. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 352, 73-83.
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  Abstract: In this paper we describe the analysis of ceramic artifacts with a new type of three dimensional x-ray microscopy which can have micron spatial resolution. The x-ray microscopy is based on a microtomographic technique which reconstructs the three dimensional structure of millimeter sized specimens from high resolution digital radiographs of the specimens taken from several hundred different view angles. When the high resolution radiographs are taken with a monoenergetic x-ray beam from a synchrotron source, each volume element (voxel) in the reconstructed data set is quantitatively the x-ray opacity of the equivalent volume in the specimen. Typical reconstructed data sets contain more than 106 voxels and are rendered using computer visualization techniques. Specimens can be nondestructively analyzed so long as they are small enough to fit into the area of the x-ray beam imaged by the detector. We have applied x-ray microtomographic analysis both to a shard specimen taken from a Jun bowl and to a modern ash glaze and show examples of the structure of glazes on these ceramics; interfaces between the glaze and underlying ceramic bodies; and the porosity of ceramic bodies.
• Levine, T., Vandiver, P. B., & Mayer, J. W. (1995). Forward Recoil Energy Spectrometry (FRES) test of hydrogen reduction as a strategy for firing of Chinese ceramics. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 352, 167-179.
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  Abstract: We have investigated successfully the hydrogen concentration of samples of modern roof tile from the Shanghai Roof Tile and Brick Works. The intent of the investigation is to determine the applicability of ion beam analysis in the form of Forward Recoil Energy Spectrometry (FRES) to the analysis of the hydrogen content of the samples. We can measure hydrogen introduced during firing in modern bricks that we know were fired using hydrogen reduction. Completion of this feasibility test allows us to propose sampling and testing ancient Chinese ceramics and to use the modern roof tile samples as a baseline for comparison.
• Vandiver, P. B. (1995). Corrosion of synthesized glasses and glazes as analogs for nuclear waste glass degradation. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 352, 395-412.
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  Abstract: Studies of corrosion of synthetic glasses indicate that the measurement of bulk concentration of the uranium in the corrosion products is not indicative of the danger posed by the concentrated uranium-containing particles. The implication for this for a nuclear waste glass consisting of cesium encased in zeolite particles, a zinc oxide-borosilicate base glass with a considerable addition of iron oxide-containing sludge, is that the particles may corrode as a separate phase from the matrix or base glass, and thus must be considered as a segregable material whose corrosion should be assessed independently from the glass matrix. Assessment of the corrosion behavior of historical and archaelogical glasses and glazes provides an analog to the corrosion of nuclear waste-containment glasses which is intermediate in time between natural glasses produced by geological processes for which parameters are difficult to document and laboratory test glasses which require assumptions about the validity of accelerated aging parameters.
• Vandiver, P. B., & Chaussonnet, V. (1995). Ceramic technology at the crossroads. Materials Research Society Symposium - Proceedings, 352, 687-699.
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  Abstract: From 1993-1995, the Smithsonian Institution's Arctic Studies Center at the National Museum of Natural History, in collaboration with Russian Far Eastern Museums produced a traveling exhibition designed for cities and rural communities in Alaska entitled 'Crossroads Alaska.' This exhibition focuses on prehistoric, traditional, and modern cultures of the North Pacific. This exhibition provided an opportunity to study eleven pottery fragments from Sakhalin Island and one from Alaska. This study involved a preliminary assessment of the similarity of technologies for pottery manufacture on both sides of the Bering Strait. This article reports the results obtained from the study.
• Vandiver, P. B. (1994). Corrosion of synthesized glasses and glazes as analogs for nuclear waste glass degradation. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 333, 969-982.
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  Abstract: Synthesized glasses provide an opportunity to study natural corrosion processes which are intermediate in time span between geological examples of natural glasses, such as obsidians and tektites, and relatively short term laboratory tests lasting a few hours to several decades.
• Vandiver, P. B., Soffer, O., Klima, B., & Svoboda, J. (1989). The origins of ceramic technology at Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia. Science, 246(4933), 1002-1008.
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  Abstract: A typology was established for more than 5000 ceramic artifacts at Dolni Věstonice, Czechoslovakia. Conjectured methods of manufacture were confirmed by radiography. The compositions and mineralogy of the artifacts were identical to those of the local soil, loess. A firing temperature range of 500° to 800°C was measured and compared with those of hearths and kilns. The mechanism of sintering was impurity-initiated, liquid-phase sintering. Many fracture sections show evidence of thermal shock, although thermal expansion of the loess is low. The making, firing, and sometimes exploding of the figurines may have been the prime function of the ceramics at this site rather than being manufactured as permanent, portable objects.
• Kingery, W. D., & Vandiver, P. B. (1983). SONG DYNASTY JUN (CHUN) WARE GLAZES.. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 62(11), 1269-1274, 1279.
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  Abstract: The technology of jun ware glazes is investigated. The attention was focused on the thick, translucent and lustrous appearance of the glaze. The microstructures of museum quality and modern replica jun samples are examined in conjunction with laboratory tests. The roles of iron and copper and phosphorus, the degree of reduction during firing, and the nature of the firing cycle are critically examined. The optical effects achieved in jun glazes are found to depend on phase separation during cooling for which local compositional variations and rate of cooling are critical factors.
• Kingery, W. D., Vandiver, P. B., Huang, I. -., & Chiang, Y. -. (1983). Liquid-liquid immiscibility and phase separation in the quaternary systems K₂OAl₂O₃CaOSiO₂ and Na₂OAl₂O₃CaOSiO₂. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 54(1-2), 163-171.
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  Abstract: Additions of Al2O3, Na2O or K2O all lower the immiscibility temperature for liquid-liquid phase separation in the CaOSiO2 system as the region of immiscibility is extended into the ternary field. Simultaneous additions of K2O and Al2O3 or of Na2O and Al2O3 are found to further extend the compositional region of immiscibility which reaches a maximum with equimolar additions of alkali and alumina. These results are attributed to the ability of KAlO2 or NaAlO2 units to substitute for SiO2 in the liquid structure. As a consequence of liquid-liquid immiscibility, wollastonite crystallizes from the calcia-rich liquid phase. STEM analysis has been applied to the phase-separated glasses to determine the approximate K2OAl2O3 ratio and overall composition of each phase to locate tie-lines for the liquid-liquid immiscibility. The tie lines are roughly parallel to the CaOSiO2 join. © 1983.