Kelly A Reynolds

Interests

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Courses

Scholarly Contributions

Books

• Reynolds, K. A. (2019). Urban and Household Pollutio. New York, NY: Elsevier.

Chapters

• Reynolds, K. A. (2019). Validation of questionnaire methods to quantify recreational water ingestion. In Recreational Water Illnesses. Basel, Switzerland: MDPI.
• Verhougstraete, M. P., Sexton, J. D., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Recreational Water Exposure. In Handbook for Water and Health(pp 151-158). New York: EarthScan.

Journals/Publications

• Contreras, R. D., Wilson, A. M., Garavito, F., Sexton, J. D., Reynolds, K. A., & Canales, R. A. (2020). Assessing virus infection probability in an office setting using stochastic simulation. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE, 17(1), 30-37.
• Canales, R. A., Reynolds, K. A., Wilson, A. M., Fankem, S., Weir, M. H., Rose, J. B., Abd-Elmaksoud, S., & Gerba, C. P. (2019). Modeling the role of fomites in a norovirus outbreak. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE, 16(1), 16-26.
• Canales, R. A., Wilson, A. M., Sinclair, R. G., Soto-Beltran, M., Pearce-Walker, J., Molina, M., Penny, M., & Reynolds, K. A. (2019). Microbial study of household hygiene conditions and associated Listeria monocytogenes infection risks for Peruvian women. TROPICAL MEDICINE & INTERNATIONAL HEALTH, 24(7), 899-921.
• Chung, S., Breshears, L. E., Perea, S., Morrison, C. M., Betancourt, W. Q., Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. (2019). Smartphone-Based Paper Microfluidic Particulometry of Norovirus from Environmental Water Samples at the Single Copy Level. ACS OMEGA, 4(6), 11180-11188.
• Chung, S., Breshears, L. E., Perea, S., Morrison, C. M., Betancourt, W. Q., Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. (2019). Smartphone-Based Paper Microfluidic Particulometry of Norovirus from Environmental Water Samples at the Single Copy Level. ACS Omega, 4(6), 11180-11188. doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.9b00772
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  Human enteric viruses can be highly infectious and thus capable of causing disease upon ingestion of low doses ranging from 10^0 to 10^2 virions. Norovirus is a good example with a minimum infectious dose as low as a few tens of virions, that is, below femtogram scale. Norovirus detection from commonly implicated environmental matrices (water and food) involves complicated concentration of viruses and/or amplification of the norovirus genome, thus rendering detection approaches not feasible for field applications. In this work, norovirus detection was performed on a microfluidic paper analytic device without using any sample concentration or nucleic acid amplification steps by directly imaging and counting on-paper aggregation of antibody-conjugated, fluorescent submicron particles. An in-house developed smartphone-based fluorescence microscope and an image-processing algorithm isolated the particles aggregated by antibody–antigen binding, leading to an extremely low limit of norovirus detection, as low as 1 genome copy/μL in deionized water and 10 genome copies/μL in reclaimed wastewater.
• Gerba, C. P., Reynolds, K. A., & Verhougstraete, M. (2017). Lead in drinking water: Point of use cost benefit analysis.. Environmental Health Perspectives.
• Hunter, C. M., McMullen, S., Edens, C., Baddour, L. J., McKeever, J., Reynolds, K. A., & Taren, D. L. (2019). Preventing Legionnaires' Disease Through a New Learning Opportunity: A Training on Legionella Water Management Programs. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, 82(3), 44-46.
• Kurgat, E. K., Sexton, J. D., Garavito, F., Reynolds, A., Contreras, R. D., Gerba, C. P., Leslie, R. A., Edmonds-Wilson, S. L., & Reynolds, K. A. (2019). Impact of a hygiene intervention on virus spread in an office building. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HYGIENE AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH, 222(3), 479-485.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2019). . Estimating the effect of a hand hygiene compliance and surface cleaning timing on infection risk reductions with a mathematical modeling approach. American Journal of Infection Control. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2019.09.010
• Van, H., Parks, J., Tran, T., Abrell, L., Reynolds, K. A., & Beamer, P. I. (2019). Seasonal Variation of Water Quality in Unregulated Domestic Wells. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH, 16(9).
• Verhougstraete, M. P., Gerald, J. K., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2019). Cost-benefit of point-of-use devices for lead reduction. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH, 171, 260-265.
• Verhougstraete, M., Pogreba Brown, K. M., Canales, R. A., Reynolds, K. A., Conde Lamparellie, C., Zanoli Satof, M., Wade, T., & Eisenburg, J. (2019). Using Local Data in a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Water Research. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.115294
• Wilson, A. M., Reynolds, K. A., & Canales, R. A. (2019). Estimating the effect of hand hygiene compliance and surface cleaning timing on infection risk reductions with a mathematical modeling approach. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INFECTION CONTROL, 47(12), 1453-1459.
• Wilson, A. M., Reynolds, K. A., Verhougstraete, M. P., & Canales, R. A. (2019). Validation of a Stochastic Discrete Event Model Predicting Virus Concentration on Nurse Hands. RISK ANALYSIS, 39(8), 1812-1824.
• Alshammari, M., Reynolds, K. A., Verhougstraete, M., & O'Rourke, M. K. (2018). Comparison of Perceived and Observed Hand Hygiene Compliance in Healthcare Workers in MERS-CoV Endemic Regions. HEALTHCARE, 6(4).
• Alshammari, M., Reynolds, K. A., Verhougstraete, M., & O'Rourke, M. K. (2018). Comparison of Perceived and Observed Hand Hygiene Compliance in Healthcare Workers in MERS-CoV Endemic Regions. Healthcare.
• Canales, R. A., Wilson, A. M., Pearce-Walker, J. I., Verhougstraete, M. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2018). Methods for Handling Left-Censored Data in Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, 84(20).
• Klug, K. E., Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. (2018). A Capillary Flow Dynamics-Based Sensing Modality for Direct Environmental Pathogen Monitoring. Chemistry - A European Journal, 24(23), 6025-6029. doi:10.1002/chem.201800085
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  Toward ultra‐simple and field‐ready biosensors, we demonstrate a novel assay transducer mechanism based on interfacial property changes and capillary flow dynamics in antibody‐conjugated submicron particle suspensions. Differential capillary flow is tunable, allowing pathogen quantification as a function of flow rate through a paper‐based microfluidic device. Flow models based on interfacial and rheological properties indicate a significant relationship between the flow rate and the interfacial effects caused by target‐particle aggregation. This mechanism is demonstrated for assays of Escherichia coli K12 in water samples and Zika virus (ZIKV) in blood serum. These assays achieved very low limits of detection compared with other demonstrated methods (1 log CFU/mL E. coli and 20 pg/mL ZIKV whole virus) with an operating time of 30 s, showing promise for environmental and health monitoring.
• Munoz-Gutierrez, K., Canales, R. A., Reynolds, K. A., & Verhougstraete, M. (2018). Floor and environmental contamination during glove disposal. Journal of Hospital Infections. doi:10.1016/J.JHIN.2018.10.015
• Reynolds, K. A. (2018). A Capillary Flow Dynamics-Based Sensing Modality for Direct Environmental Pathogen Monitoring.. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany).
• Reynolds, K. A. (2018). Evaluation of hospital-grade disinfectants on viral deposition on surfaces after toilet flushing.. American journal of infection control.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2018). Tracking and controlling soft surface contamination in health care settings.. American journal of infection control.
• Sexton, J. D., Wilson, A. M., Sassi, H. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Tracking and controlling soft surface contamination in health care settings. American journal of infection control, 46(1), 39-43.
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  Study objectives were to track the transfer of microbes on soft surfaces in health care environments and determine the efficiency of an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered soft surface sanitizer in the health care environment.
• Suppes, L. M., Ernst, K. C., Abrell, L., & Reynolds, K. A. (2018). Validation of Questionnaire Methods to Quantify Recreational Water Ingestion. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH, 15(11).
• Verhougstraete, M., Gerald, J. K., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2019). Cost-benefit of point-of-use devices for lead reduction. Environmental Research.
• Verhougstraete, M., Reynolds, K. A., Pearce-Walker, J., Sexton, J. D., Bright, K. R., & Lothrop, N. (2018). Optimal strategies for monitoring irrigation water quality. AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT, 199, 86-92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.12.018
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  The quality of irrigation water drawn from surface water sources varies greatly. This is particularly true for waters that are subject to intermittent contamination events such as runoff from rainfall or direct entry of livestock upstream of use. Such pollution in irrigation systems increases the risk of food crop contamination and require adoption of best monitoring practices. Therefore, this study aimed to define optimal strategies for monitoring irrigation water quality. Following the analysis of 1357 irrigation water samples for Escherichia coli, total coliforms, and physical and chemical parameters, the following key irrigation water collection approaches are suggested: 1) explore up to 950 m upstream to ensure no major contamination or outfalls exists; 2) collect samples before 12:00 p.m. local time; 3) collect samples at the surface of the water at any point across the canal where safe access is available; and 4) composite five samples and perform a single E. coli assay. These recommendations comprehensively consider the results as well as sampling costs, personnel effort, and current scientific knowledge of water quality characterization. These strategies will help to better characterize risks from microbial pathogen contamination in irrigation waters in the Southwest United States and aid in risk reduction practices for agricultural water use in regions with similar water quality, climate, and canal construction.
• Verhougstraete, M., Reynolds, K. A., Sexton, J. D., Bright, K., & Lothrop, N. Z. (2018). Optimal strategies for monitoring irrigation water quality and the development of guidelines for the irrigation of food crops in the Southwestern United States. Agricultural Water Management.
• Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Quantifying the impact of hygiene interventions. Household and Personal Care Products, 12, 12-14.
• Koenig, D., Tamimi, A., Reynolds, K. A., Gerba, C. P., Maxwell, S., & Sifuentes, L. Y. (2017). Use of ATP Readings to Predict a Successful Hygiene Intervention in the Workplace. Food and Environmental Virology, 9, 14-19.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Assessment of Waterborne Leptosporosis Infections. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(11), 48-50.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Búsquedas de Internet Ayudan a Seguir la Pista de las Enfermedades Transmitidas por el Agua. Agua Latinoamérica.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Comparison of Fluoride Levels in Tap and Bottled Water and Reported Use of Fluoride Supplementation in a United States-Mexico Border Community.. Frontiers in public health.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Controlling Disinfection Byproducts in Swimming Pools. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(8), 40-42.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Decreased Sperm Counts Associated with Waterborne Contaminants in the Developed World. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(9), 52-54.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Effective Immediately: Healthcare Facilities Required to Reduce Legionellosis Risks from Tap Water. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(7), 54-56.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Filtración en el Punto de Uso: Algo Esencial para un Plan de Seguridad del Agua. Agua Latinoamérica.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Filtros de Punto de Uso para el Hogar: Centinelas para el Monitoreo a Largo Plazo del Agua de la Llave. Agua Latinoamérica.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Growing Global Acceptance of Potable Reuse Water. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(10), 44-46.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Household POU Filters: Sentinels for Long-term Tap Water Quality Monitorin. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(3), 62-64.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Internet Queries Help Track Waterborne Disease. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(5), 44-46.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Lluvias de Verano Aumentan el Riesgo de Virus Humanos en el Agua Subterránea. Agua Latinoamérica.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Multi-Normalization and Interpolation Protocol to Improve Norovirus Immunoagglutination Assay from Paper Microfluidics with Smartphone Detection.. SLAS technology.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). POU Filtration: A Water Safety Plan Essential. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(1), 3.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Prevalent Pepper Virus: A Contamination Tracker. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(2), 56-58.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Recent Increase in Documented US Waterborne Disease Outbreaks. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(12), 46-48.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Recuentos Menores de Espermatozoides Asociados con Contaminantes Propagados a través del Agua en el Mundo Desarrollado. Agua Latinoamérica.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Summer Rains Increase Risk of Human Viruses in Groundwater. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(6), 52-54.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Uncertain Effects of PFOA and PFOS. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 59(4), 44-46.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Use of ATP Readings to Predict a Successful Hygiene Intervention in the Workplace to Reduce the Spread of Viruses on Fomites.. Food and environmental virology.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017). Virus Prevalente del Chile: Un Marcador de la Contaminación. Agua Latinoamérica.
• Sifuentes, L. Y., Fankem, S., Reynolds, K., Tamimi, A. H., Gerba, C. P., & Koenig, D. (2017). Use of ATP Readings to Predict a Successful Hygiene Intervention in the Workplace to Reduce the Spread of Viruses on Fomites. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY, 9(1), 14-19.
• Verhougstraete, M., Reynolds, K. A., Sexton, J. D., Bright, K., & Lothrop, N. Z. (2016). Optimal strategies for monitoring irrigation water quality and the development of guidelines for the irrigation of food crops in the Southwestern United States. Agricultural Water Management.
• Victory, K. R., Cabrera, N. L., Larson, D., Reynolds, K. A., Latura, J., Thomson, C. A., & Beamer, P. I. (2017). Comparison of Fluoride Levels in Tap and Bottled Water and Reported Use of Fluoride Supplementation in a United States-Mexico Border Community. Frontiers in public health, 5, 87.
  More info

  Compared to the general United States (U.S.) population, Arizona counties along the U.S.-Mexico border have a higher prevalence of dental caries, which can be reduced with adequate fluoride exposure. Because of concern regarding local tap water quality, fluoride-free bottled water consumption is common in this region, raising concern that families are not receiving adequate fluoride to promote dental health.
• Yoon, J., Reynolds, K. A., Park, T. S., & Cho, S. (2017). Multi-Normalization and Interpolation Protocol to Improve Norovirus Immunoagglutination Assay from Paper Microfluidics with Smartphone Detection. SLAS Technology, 22(6), 609-615. doi:10.1177/2472630317724769
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  Norovirus (NoV) is one of the leading causes of acute gastroenteritis, affecting 685 million people per year around the world. The best preventive measure is to screen water for possible NoV contamination, not from infected humans, preferably using rapid and field-deployable diagnostic methods. While enzyme immunoassays (EIAs) can be used for such detection, the low infectious dose as well as the generally inferior sensitivity and low titer of available NoV antibodies render critical challenges in using EIAs toward NoV detection. In this work, we demonstrated smartphone-based Mie scatter detection of NoV with immunoagglutinated latex particles on paper microfluidic chips. Using only three different concentrations of anti-NoV-conjugated particles, we were able to construct a single standard curve that covered seven orders of magnitude of NoV antigen concentrations. Multiple normalization steps and interpolation procedures were developed to estimate the optimum amount of antibody-conjugated particles that matched to the target NoV concentration. A very low detection limit of 10 pg/mL was achieved without using any concentration or enrichment steps. This method can also be adapted for detection of any other virus pathogens whose antibodies possess low sensitivity and low antibody titer.
• Gerba, C. P., Koenig, D. W., Sifuentes, L. Y., Plotkin, K. R., Beamer, P. -., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). The Healthy Workplace Project: Reduced Viral Exposure in an Office Setting. Archives of Environmental and Occupational Health.
• McCracken, K. E., Angus, S. V., Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. (2016). Multimodal Imaging and Lighting Bias Correction for Improved uPAD-based Water Quality Monitoring via Smartphones. Scientific Reports, 6(27529). doi:10.1038/srep27529
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  Smartphone image-based sensing of microfluidic paper analytical devices (μPADs) offers low-cost and mobile evaluation of water quality. However, consistent quantification is a challenge due to variable environmental, paper, and lighting conditions, especially across large multi-target μPADs. Compensations must be made for variations between images to achieve reproducible results without a separate lighting enclosure. We thus developed a simple method using triple-reference point normalization and a fast-Fourier transform (FFT)-based pre-processing scheme to quantify consistent reflected light intensity signals under variable lighting and channel conditions. This technique was evaluated using various angles/heights of light source, imaging backgrounds, and type/quality of light source. Further testing evaluated its handle of absorbance, quenching, and relative scattering intensity measurements from assays detecting four water contaminants – Cr(VI), total chlorine, caffeine, and E. coli K12 – at similar wavelengths using the green channel of RGB images. Between assays, this algorithm reduced error from μPAD surface inconsistencies and cross-image lighting gradients. Although the algorithm could not completely remove the anomalies arising from point shadows within channels or some non-uniform background reflections, it still afforded order-of-magnitude quantification and stable assay specificity under these conditions, offering one route toward improving smartphone quantification of μPAD assays for in-field water quality monitoring.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016). Cryptosporidium risk from swimming pool exposures.. International journal of hygiene and environmental health.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016). Multimodal Imaging and Lighting Bias Correction for Improved μPAD-based Water Quality Monitoring via Smartphones.. Scientific reports.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016). Quantitative risk modeling of healthcare acquired infections and interventions using baseline data and simple models. American Journal of Infection Control- Supplement, 44(S3-27).
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016). The Healthy Workplace Project: Reduced Viral Exposure in an Office Setting. Archives of Environmental and Occupational Health, 71(3), 157-162.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016). Use of a portable air disinfecting system to remove seeded coliphage in hospital rooms.. American journal of infection control.
• Reynolds, K. A., Gerba, C. P., Canales, R. A., & Suppes, L. (2014). Risk Assessment of Cryptosporidiosis among Recreational Swimmers in the United States. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 219, 915-919.
• Sifuentes, L. Y., Fankem, S. L., Reynolds, K., Tamimi, A. H., Gerba, C. P., & Koenig, D. (2017). Use of ATP Readings to Predict a Successful Hygiene Intervention in the Workplace to Reduce the Spread of Viruses on Fomites. Food and environmental virology.
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  The purpose of this study was to validate the use of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for evaluating hygiene intervention effectiveness in reducing viral dissemination in an office environment. The bacterial virus MS-2 was used to evaluate two scenarios, one where the hand of an individual was contaminated and another where a fomite was contaminated. MS-2 was selected as a model because its shape and size are similar to many human pathogenic viruses. Two separate experiments were conducted, one in which the entrance door push plate was inoculated and the other in which the hand of one selected employee was inoculated. In both scenarios, 54 selected surfaces in the office were tested to assess the dissemination of the virus within the office. Associated surface contamination was also measured employing an ATP meter. More than half of the tested hands and surfaces in the office were contaminated with MS-2 within 4 h. Next, an intervention was conducted, and each scenario was repeated. Half of the participating employees were provided hand sanitizer, facial tissues, and disinfecting wipes, and were instructed in their use. A significant (p 
• Suppes, L. M., Canales, R. A., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2016). Cryptosporidium risk from swimming pool exposures. International journal of hygiene and environmental health, 219(8), 915-919.
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  Infection risk estimates from swimming in treated recreational water venues are lacking and needed to prioritize public health interventions in swimming pools. Quantitative infection risk estimates among different age groups are needed to identify vulnerable populations. High risk populations can be targeted during public health interventions, like education campaigns and pool operation improvements.
• Suppes, L., Canales, R. A., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Cryptosporidium risk from swimming pool exposures. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health.
• Suppes, L., Canales, R. A., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Risk Assessment of Cryptosporidiosis among Recreational Swimmers in the United States. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health.
• Suppes, L., Canales, R. A., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2016). Cryptosporidium risk from swimming pool exposures. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health.
• Verhougstraete, M., & Reynolds, K. (2016). Use of a portable air disinfecting system to remove seeded coliphage in hospital rooms. American journal of infection control, 44(6), 714-5.
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  Health care-associated infections are a major problem worldwide, and the airborne route is believed to be a contributory source of secondary health care-associated infections. This study examined the efficacy of a portable air disinfecting system to remove seeded coliphage virus from the air in hospitals rooms. Aerosolized coliphage concentrations were not statistically different between treatment and no treatment measurements. However, future research should focus on additional investigations in the patient rooms that incorporate fomite and air testing alongside portable air filtration devices.
• Beamer, P. -., Plotkin, K. R., Gerba, C. P., Sifuentes, L. Y., Koenig, D. W., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Modeling of Human Viruses on Hands and Risk of Infection in an Office Workplace using Micro-Activity Data. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 12(4), 266-275.
• Beamer, P. I., Plotkin, K. R., Gerba, C. P., Sifuentes, L. Y., Koenig, D. W., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Modeling of human viruses on hands and risk of infection in an office workplace using micro-activity data. Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene, 12(4), 266-75.
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  Although the number of illnesses resulting from indirect viral pathogen transmission could be substantial, it is difficult to estimate the relative risks because of the wide variation and uncertainty in human behavior, variable viral concentrations on fomites, and other exposure factors. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the micro-activity approach for assessment of microbial risk by adapting a mathematical model to estimate probability of viral infection from indirect transmission. To evaluate the model, measurements of phage loading on fomites and hands collected before and after implementation of a Healthy Workplace Project intervention were used. Parameter distributions were developed from these data, as well as for micro-activity rates, contact surface areas, phage transfer efficiencies, and inactivation rates. Following the Monte Carlo simulations (n = 1,000), the estimated phage loading on hands was not significantly different from the loading of phage on hands measured in the experimental trials. The model was then used to demonstrate that the Healthy Workplace Project intervention significantly reduced risk of infection by 77% for rotavirus and rhinovirus. This is the first published study to successfully evaluate a model focused on the indirect transmission of viruses via hand contact with measured data and provide an assessment of the micro-activity approach to microbial risk evaluation.
• Lopez, G. U., Kitajima, M., Sexton, J. D., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Risk of Campylobacter jejuni Infection from Preparing Raw Chicken in Domestic Kitchens and Reduction of Cross-contamination Using Disinfectant Wipes. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 119, 245-252.
• Lopez, G. u., Katajima, M., Sherchan, S. P., Sexton, J. D., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Impact of Disinfectant Wipes on the Risk of Campylobacter jejuni Infection During Raw Chicken Preparation in Domestic Kitchens. Journal of Applied Microbiology. doi:10.1111/jam.12834 [Epub ahead of print]
• Reynolds, K. A., Beamer, P. I., Plotkin, K. R., Sifuentes, L. Y., Koenig, D. W., & Gerba, C. P. (2015). The healthy workplace project: Reduced viral exposure in an office setting. Archives of environmental & occupational health, 1-6.
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  Viral illnesses such as gastroenteritis and the common cold create a substantial burden in the workplace due to reduced productivity, increased absenteeism, and increased health care costs. Behaviors in the workplace contribute to the spread of human viruses via direct contact between hands, contaminated surfaces, and the mouth, eyes, and/or nose. This study assessed whether implementation of the Healthy Workplace Project (HWP) (providing hand sanitizers, disinfecting wipes, facial tissues, and use instructions) would reduce viral loads in an office setting of approximately 80 employees after seeding fomites and the hands of volunteer participants with an MS-2 phage tracer. The HWP significantly reduced viable phage detected on participants' hands, communal fomites, and personal fomites (p ≤ .010) in office environments and presents a cost-effective method for reducing the health and economic burden associated with viral illnesses in the workplace.
• Reynolds, K. A., Gerba, C. P., Sexton, J. D., Kitajima, M., & Lopez, G. U. (2015). Risk of Campylobacter jejuni Infection from Preparing Raw Chicken in Domestic Kitchens and Reduction of Cross-contamination Using Disinfectant Wipes. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 119, 245-252.
• Reynolds, K. A., Reynolds, K. A., Beamer, P. -., Beamer, P. -., Plotkin, K. R., Plotkin, K. R., Sifuentes, L. Y., Sifuentes, L. Y., Koenig, D. W., Koenig, D. W., Gerba, C. P., & Gerba, C. P. (2015). The Healthy Workplace Project: Reduced Viral Exposure in an Office Setting. Archives of Environmental and Occupational Health, doi:10.1080/19338244.2015.1058234.
• Sassi, H. P., Sifuentes, L. Y., Koenig, D. W., Nichols, E., Clark-Greuel, J., Wong, L. F., McGrath, K., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Control of the spread of viruses in a long-term care facility using hygiene protocols. American journal of infection control, 43(7), 702-6.
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  Approximately 50% of norovirus cases in the United States occur in long-term care facilities; many incidences of rotavirus, sapovirus, and adenovirus also occur. The primary objectives of this study were to demonstrate movement of pathogenic viruses through a long-term care facility and to determine the impact of a hygiene intervention on viral transmission.
• Suppes, L. M., Ernst, K. C., Abrell, L. M., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Validation and Standardization of Swimming Exposure and Pool Operations Questionnaires. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health..
• Valdez, M. K., Sexton, J. D., Lutz, E. A., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Spread of infectious microbes during emergency medical response. American journal of infection control, 43(6), 606-11.
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  To our knowledge, no studies to date demonstrate potential spread of microbes during actual emergency medical service (EMS) activities. Our study introduces a novel approach to identification of contributors to EMS environment contamination and development of infection control strategies, using a bacteriophage surrogate for pathogenic organisms.
• Verhougstraete, M., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Use of a portable air disinfecting system to remove seeded coliphage in hospital rooms. American Journal of Infection Control.
• Lopez, G. U., Kitajima, M., Havas, A., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Evaluation of a Disinfectant Wipe Intervention on Fomite-to-Finger Microbial Transfer. Applied Environmental Microbiology, 80(10), 3113-3118.
• Lopez, G. U., Kitajima, M., Havas, A., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Evaluation of a disinfectant wipe intervention on fomite-to-finger microbial transfer. Applied and environmental microbiology, 80(10), 3113-8.
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  Inanimate surfaces, or fomites, can serve as routes of transmission of enteric and respiratory pathogens. No previous studies have evaluated the impact of surface disinfection on the level of pathogen transfer from fomites to fingers. Thus, the present study investigated the change in microbial transfer from contaminated fomites to fingers following disinfecting wipe use. Escherichia coli (10(8) to 10(9) CFU/ml), Staphylococcus aureus (10(9) CFU/ml), Bacillus thuringiensis spores (10(7) to 10(8) CFU/ml), and poliovirus 1 (10(8) PFU/ml) were seeded on ceramic tile, laminate, and granite in 10-μl drops and allowed to dry for 30 min at a relative humidity of 15 to 32%. The seeded fomites were treated with a disinfectant wipe and allowed to dry for an additional 10 min. Fomite-to-finger transfer trials were conducted to measure concentrations of transferred microorganisms on the fingers after the disinfectant wipe intervention. The mean log10 reduction of the test microorganisms on fomites by the disinfectant wipe treatment varied from 1.9 to 5.0, depending on the microorganism and the fomite. Microbial transfer from disinfectant-wipe-treated fomites was lower (up to
• Lopez, G. U., Lopez, G. U., Kitajima, M., Kitajima, M., Sexton, J. D., Sexton, J. D., Gerba, C. P., Gerba, C. P., Reynolds, K. A., Reynolds, K. A., Lopez, G. U., Kitajima, M., Sexton, J. D., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2015). Risk of Campylobacter jejuni Infection from Preparing Raw Chicken in Domestic Kitchens and Reduction of Cross-contamination Using Disinfectant Wipes. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 119, 245-252.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Do You Know Where Your Phthalates Are?. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(3), 66-68.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Enterovirus 68 and the Recent Emergence of a Polio-Like Syndrome. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(4), 50-52.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Guidance for the POU Industry: AWWA’s State of the Water Industry Report. Water Conditioning and Purification International., 56(9), 52-54.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Health Risks Associated with Cross-connections in Drinking Water Supply. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(7), 50-52.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Is Ebola a Waterborne Virus?. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(11), 46-48.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Major U.S. Cities Running Out of Water.. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(1), 44-46.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). New Waterborne Risks: A Case Study of West Virginia’s Chemical Spill. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(5), 50-53.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Sewage Overflows Impact US Cities/Public Health. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(12), 48-50.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Threat Assessment of Free-Living Amoeba in Drinking Water. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(8), 44-46.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Urgent Threats from Antibiotic-Resistant Organisms. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(6), 48-50.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Water-based Virus May Cause Rheumatoid Arthritis. Water Conditioning and Purification International, 56(2), 58-62.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Waterborne Contaminants and Increasing Incidence of Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Water Conditioning and Purification International., 56(10), 54-56.
• Sifuentes, L. Y., Koenig, D. W., Phillips, R. L., Reynolds, K. A., & Gerba, C. P. (2014). Use of hygiene protocols to control the spread of viruses in a hotel. Food and environmental virology, 6(3), 175-81.
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  The goals of this study were to observe the spread of viruses in a hotel setting and to assess the effectiveness of a hygiene intervention in reducing their spread. Selected fomites in one hotel room were inoculated with bacteriophage ϕx-174, and fomites in a conference center within the same hotel were inoculated using bacteriophage MS2. Cleaning of the contaminated room resulted in the spread of viruses to other rooms by the housekeeping staff. Furthermore, viruses were transferred by hotel guests to the conference center and a communal kitchen area. Additionally, conference attendees transferred viruses from the conference center to their hotel rooms and a communal kitchen area. This study demonstrated how viruses can be spread throughout a hotel setting by both housekeepers and guests. A hygiene intervention, which included providing hand hygiene products and facial tissues to the guests and disinfecting solutions with disposable wipes to the housekeeping staff, was successful in reducing the spread of viruses between the hotel guest rooms and conference center. The hygiene intervention resulted in significantly reduced transfer of the ϕx-174 between the contaminated hotel room and other hotel rooms, communal areas, and the conference center (p = 0.02).
• Sifuentes, L. Y., Koenig, D. W., Reynolds, K. A., & Gerba, C. P. (2014). Use of Hygiene Protocols to Control the Spread of Viruses in a Hotel. Food and Environmental Virology, 6(3), 175-181.
• Suppes, L. M., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Swimmer Recall on a Recreational Waterborne Illness Outbreak Questionnaire. Microchemical Journal, 112(1), 150-152.
• Suppes, L. M., Abrell, L. M., A, D. P., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Assessment of Swimmer Head Submersion Exposures and Pool Water Ingestion.. Journal of Water and Health, 12(2), 269-279.
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  ABSTRACTEnteric pathogens in pool water can be unintentionally ingested during swimming, increasing the likelihood of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI). AGI cases in outbreaks are more likely to submerge heads than non-cases, but an association is unknown since outbreak data are self-reported and prone to bias. In the present study, head submersion frequency and duration were observed and analyzed for associations with pool water ingestion measured using ultra high pressure liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry. Frequency of splashes to the face was also quantified. Reliable tools that assess activities associated with pool water ingestion are needed to identify ingestion risk factors and at-risk populations. Objectives were to determine if the observed activities were associated with ingestion, and to test environmental sensor and videography assessment tools. Greater frequency and duration of head submersion were not associated with ingestion, but frequency of splashes to the face, leisurely swimming, and being ≤18 were. Videography was validated for assessing swimmer head submersion frequency. Results demonstrate ingestion risk factors can be identified using videography and urine analysis techniques. Expanding surveys to include questions on leisure swimming participation and frequency of splashes to the face is recommended to improve exposure assessment during outbreak investigations.Keywords: exposure factor; head submersion; ingestion; pool; recreational water; swimming
• Suppes, L. M., Abrell, L., Dufour, A. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2014). Assessment of swimmer behaviors on pool water ingestion. Journal of water and health, 12(2), 269-79.
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  Enteric pathogens in pool water can be unintentionally ingested during swimming, increasing the likelihood of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI). AGI cases in outbreaks are more likely to submerge heads than non-cases, but an association is unknown since outbreak data are self-reported and prone to bias. In the present study, head submersion frequency and duration were observed and analyzed for associations with pool water ingestion measured using ultra high pressure liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry. Frequency of splashes to the face was also quantified. Reliable tools that assess activities associated with pool water ingestion are needed to identify ingestion risk factors and at-risk populations. Objectives were to determine if the observed activities were associated with ingestion, and to test environmental sensor and videography assessment tools. Greater frequency and duration of head submersion were not associated with ingestion, but frequency of splashes to the face, leisurely swimming, and being ≤18 were. Videography was validated for assessing swimmer head submersion frequency. Results demonstrate ingestion risk factors can be identified using videography and urine analysis techniques. Expanding surveys to include questions on leisure swimming participation and frequency of splashes to the face is recommended to improve exposure assessment during outbreak investigations.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). Aichi Virus: Possible Agent of Unexplained Cases of Waterborne Diarrhea. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). An Ongoing Cyclospora Outbreak in the U.S.- Source Currently Unknown. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). Boil Water Orders Abound in the U.S.. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). Deadly Legionella: Commonly Found in U.S. Water SystemsWater. Water Conditioning & Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). Evidence of Drug-Resistant Bacteria in Water. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). Hitting a Moving Target: Regulation of 1,4-Dioxane in Drinking Water. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). Newly Released Review on Drinking Water Outbreak Causes. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). No Ticket Needed: Dust Plumes Carry Microbes Around the Globe. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). Recognized Health Burdens Drive Drinking Water Regulation Revisions. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). U.S. Public Water Supplies: First Positive Confirmations of Deadly Amoeba. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). – Exploring Nanosponge Technologies for Water Treatment. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013). – The Chromium VI Calamity. Water Conditioning and Purification International.
• Soto Beltran, M., Mena, K. D., Gerba, C. P., Tarwater, P., Reynolds, K. A., & Chaidez, C. (2013). Risk assessment of Listeria monocytogenes in queso fresco in Culiacan, Mexico. Journal of Microbiology Research.
• Nordstrom, J. M., Reynolds, K. A., & Gerba, C. P. (2012). Comparison of bacteria on new, disposable, laundered, and unlaundered hospital scrubs. American journal of infection control, 40(6), 539-43.
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  As a cost-saving measure, an increasing number of hospitals allow personnel to launder their uniforms, lab coats, and operating room scrubs at home. With rising nosocomial infection rates and increasing levels of multidrug-resistant bacteria in hospital settings, uniform contamination may be an environmental factor in the spread of infection.
• Reynolds, K. A., Boone, S., Bright, K. R., & Gerba, C. P. (2012). Occurrence of household mold and efficacy of sodium hypochlorite disinfectant. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE, 9(11), 663-9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2012.724650
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  The occurrence and distribution of mold on household surfaces and the efficacy of bleach-based (sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl) disinfectants on mold viability and allergenicity was documented. Household microenvironments prone to increased moisture were specifically targeted. Using the sticky tape method, 1330 samples were collected from non-porous indoor surfaces of 160 homes across the United States, and analyzed for mold. Homes were randomly selected and recruited via phone interviews. Culture and immunoassays were used to measure the viability and reduction of allergenic properties of Aspergillus fumigatus following 2.4% NaOCl treatment. All homes and 72.9% of surfaces tested positive for mold. Windowsills were the most frequently contaminated site (87.5%) and Cladosporium the most commonly identified mold (31.0%). Five-minute exposures to 2.4% NaOCl resulted in a >3 to >6-log₁₀ reduction of culturable mold counts in controlled laboratory studies. Organisms were nonculturable after 5- and 10-min contact times on non-porous and porous ceramic carriers, respectively, and A. fumigatus spore-eluted allergen levels were reduced by an average 95.8% in 30 sec, as indicated by immunoassay. All homes are contaminated with some level of mold, and regrowth is likely in moisture-prone microenvironments. The use of low concentrations (2.4%) of NaOCl for the reduction of culturable indoor mold and related allergens is effective and recommended.
• Reynolds, K. A., Boone, S., Bright, K. R., & Gerba, C. P. (2012). Occurrence of household mold and efficacy of sodium hypochlorite disinfectant. Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene, 9(11), 663-9.
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  The occurrence and distribution of mold on household surfaces and the efficacy of bleach-based (sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl) disinfectants on mold viability and allergenicity was documented. Household microenvironments prone to increased moisture were specifically targeted. Using the sticky tape method, 1330 samples were collected from non-porous indoor surfaces of 160 homes across the United States, and analyzed for mold. Homes were randomly selected and recruited via phone interviews. Culture and immunoassays were used to measure the viability and reduction of allergenic properties of Aspergillus fumigatus following 2.4% NaOCl treatment. All homes and 72.9% of surfaces tested positive for mold. Windowsills were the most frequently contaminated site (87.5%) and Cladosporium the most commonly identified mold (31.0%). Five-minute exposures to 2.4% NaOCl resulted in a >3 to >6-log₁₀ reduction of culturable mold counts in controlled laboratory studies. Organisms were nonculturable after 5- and 10-min contact times on non-porous and porous ceramic carriers, respectively, and A. fumigatus spore-eluted allergen levels were reduced by an average 95.8% in 30 sec, as indicated by immunoassay. All homes are contaminated with some level of mold, and regrowth is likely in moisture-prone microenvironments. The use of low concentrations (2.4%) of NaOCl for the reduction of culturable indoor mold and related allergens is effective and recommended.
• Lee-Montiel, F. T., Reynolds, K. A., & Riley, M. R. (2011). Detection and quantification of poliovirus infection using FTIR spectroscopy and cell culture. Journal of biological engineering, 5, 16.
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  In a globalized word, prevention of infectious diseases is a major challenge. Rapid detection of viable virus particles in water and other environmental samples is essential to public health risk assessment, homeland security and environmental protection. Current virus detection methods, especially assessing viral infectivity, are complex and time-consuming, making point-of-care detection a challenge. Faster, more sensitive, highly specific methods are needed to quantify potentially hazardous viral pathogens and to determine if suspected materials contain viable viral particles. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy combined with cellular-based sensing, may offer a precise way to detect specific viruses. This approach utilizes infrared light to monitor changes in molecular components of cells by tracking changes in absorbance patterns produced following virus infection. In this work poliovirus (PV1) was used to evaluate the utility of FTIR spectroscopy with cell culture for rapid detection of infective virus particles.
• Reynolds, K., Sexton, J. D., & Reynolds, K. A. (2010). Exposure of emergency medical responders to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. American journal of infection control, 38(5).
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  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections result in 19,000 deaths a year in the United States. Epidemiologic studies have shown that community-acquired infections are increasing dramatically, and strains typical of community infections are increasingly detected in hospital populations. Emergency medical responders (EMR) are exposed to both community and hospital MRSA patients, which, combined with their communal lifestyles in fire stations, results in higher risk of exposure. This study determined the occurrence and frequency of MRSA and other bacterial indicators on environmental surfaces in fire stations, training sites, and offices of EMR.
• Roberts, M. C., Meschke, J. S., Soge, O. O., & Reynolds, K. A. (2010). Comment on MRSA studies in high school wrestling and athletic training facilities. Journal of environmental health, 72(9), 48-9; author reply 49.
• Yang, Z., Fah, M. K., Reynolds, K. A., Sexton, J. D., Riley, M. R., Anne, M., Bureau, B., & Lucas, P. (2010). Opto-electrophoretic detection of bio-molecules using conducting chalcogenide glass sensors. Optics express, 18(25), 26754-9.
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  Novel telluride glasses with high electrical conductivity, wide infrared transparency and good resistance to crystallization are used to design an opto-electrophoretic sensor for detection and identification of hazardous microorganisms. The sensor is based on an attenuated total reflectance element made of Ge-As-Te glass that serves as both an optical sensing zone and an electrode for driving the migration of bio-molecules within the evanescent wave of the sensor. An electric field is applied between the optical element and a counter electrode in order to induce the migration of bio-molecules carrying surface charges. The effect of concentration and applied voltage is tested and the migration effect is shown to be reversible upon switching the electric field. The collected signal is of high quality and can be used to identify different bacterial genus through statistical spectral analysis. This technique therefore provides the ability to detect hazardous microorganisms with high specificity and high sensitivity in aqueous environments. This has great potential for online monitoring of water quality.
• Andrade, C., Champagne, S., Caruso, D., Foster, K., & Reynolds, K. (2009). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an assessment of environmental contamination in a burn center. American journal of infection control, 37(6), 515-7.
• Reynolds, K., Miles, S. L., Gerba, C. P., Pepper, I. L., & Reynolds, K. A. (2009). Point-of-Use drinking water devices for assessing microbial contamination in finished water and distribution systems. Environmental science & technology, 43(5).
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  The objective of this study was to develop a method to monitor the microbial quality of treated drinking water at the tap utilizing point-of-use filter systems that are placed in water vending machines. Such vending machines have high-volume water throughput and allow for an evaluation of the occurrence of human enteric pathogens and fecal indicator bacteria in tap water over extended time periods. Seeded experiments, using Escherichia coli and bacteriophage MS-2, were performed on (i) new filters, (ii) artificially aged filters, and (iii) filters that had been used in the field (naturally aged filters) to evaluate the efficiency of recovery of these organisms from the three-component filter set (30 microm, 5 mirom, solid block carbon (SBC)) by evaluating each filter independently. SBC filters had the highest recovery of the organisms, averaging recovery of 27% and 5% for E. coli and MS-2, respectively. Subsequently, tapwatersupplieswere monitored in vending machinesthroughout Southern Arizona using SBC filters as a monitoring tool. A total of 48 filters from 41 unique site locations were surveyed for the presence of total coliforms, E. coli, enterococci, Cryptosporidium, enteroviruses, and noroviruses. Organisms were detected following the passage of large volumes of water ranging from 1000 to 17,000 L through the filters. Out of 48 SBC filters 54.2% were positive for at least one organism. The number of filters positive for total coliforms, E. coli, enterococci, and enterovirus was 13, 5, 19, and 3, respectively, corresponding to 27.1%, 10.4%, 39.6%, and 6.3% of the total filters. No filters were positive for noroviruses or Cryptosporidium. These results suggest that the SBC filter can be used to monitor large volumes of treated drinking water and detect the incidence of indicators and pathogens that may be present at low concentrations. These data show that post-treated water often contains water quality indicator and pathogenic organisms at the tap, and therefore, monitoring with this method would be beneficial to the community as it allows for an assessment of exposure to pathogens and associative risks. This monitoring tool will also aid in the tracking of outbreaks and the determination of the microbial pathogen load during all stages of an outbreak as a filter can be installed and retrieved at the point-of-use at anytime during an outbreak.
• Vargas, C. A., Wilhelm, A. A., Williams, J., Lucas, P., Reynolds, K. A., & Riley, M. R. (2009). Integrated capture and spectroscopic detection of viruses. Applied and environmental microbiology, 75(20), 6431-40.
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  The goal of this work is to develop an online monitoring scheme for detection of viruses in flowing drinking water. The approach applies an electrodeposition process that is similar to the use of charged membrane filters previously employed for collection of viruses from aqueous samples. In the present approach, charged materials are driven onto a robust optical sensing element which has high transparency to infrared light. A spectroscopic measurement is performed using the evanescent wave that penetrates no more than 1 mum from the surface of an infrared optical element in an attenuated total reflectance measurement scheme. The infrared measurement provides quantitative information on the amount and identity of material deposited from the water. Initial studies of this sensing scheme used proteins reversibly electrodeposited onto germanium chips. The results of those studies were applied to design a method for collection of viruses onto an attenuated total reflectance crystal. Spectral signatures can be discriminated between three types of protein and two viruses. There is the potential to remove deposited material by reversing the voltage polarity. This work demonstrates a novel and practical scheme for detection of viruses in water systems with potential application to near-continual, automated monitoring of municipal drinking water.
• Reynolds, K. A., Mena, K. D., & Gerba, C. P. (2008). Risk of waterborne illness via drinking water in the United States. Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology, 192, 117-58.
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  Outbreaks of disease attributable to drinking water are not common in the U.S., but they do still occur and can lead to serious acute, chronic, or sometimes fatal health consequences, particularly in sensitive and immunocompromised populations. From 1971 to 2002, there were 764 documented waterborne outbreaks associated with drinking water, resulting in 575,457 cases of illness and 79 deaths (Blackburn et al. 2004; Calderon 2004); however, the true impact of disease is estimated to be much higher. If properly applied, current protocols in municipal water treatment are effective at eliminating pathogens from water. However, inadequate, interrupted, or intermittent treatment has repeatedly been associated with waterborne disease outbreaks. Contamination is not evenly distributed but rather affected by the number of pathogens in the source water, the age of the distribution system, the quality of the delivered water, and climatic events that can tax treatment plant operations. Private water supplies are not regulated by the USEPA and are generally not treated or monitored, although very few of the municipal systems involved in documented outbreaks exceeded the USEPA's total coliform standard in the preceding 12 mon (Craun et al. 2002). We provide here estimates of waterborne infection and illness risks in the U.S. based on the total number of water systems, source water type, and total populations exposed. Furthermore, we evaluated all possible illnesses associated with the microbial infection and not just gastroenteritis. Our results indicate that 10.7 M infections/yr and 5.4 M illnesses/yr occur in populations served by community groundwater systems; 2.2 M infections/yr and 1.1 M illnesses/yr occur in noncommunity groundwater systems; and 26.0 M infections/yr and 13.0 M illnesses/yr occur in municipal surface water systems. The total estimated number of waterborne illnesses/yr in the U.S. is therefore estimated to be 19.5 M/yr. Others have recently estimated waterborne illness rates of 12M cases/yr (Colford et al. 2006) and 16 M cases/yr (Messner et al. 2006), yet our estimate considers all health outcomes associated with exposure to pathogens in drinking water rather than only gastrointestinal illness. Drinking water outbreaks exemplify known breaches in municipal water treatment and distribution processes and the failure of regulatory requirements to ensure water that is free of human pathogens. Water purification technologies applied at the point-of-use (POU) can be effective for limiting the effects of source water contamination, treatment plant inadequacies, minor intrusions in the distribution system, or deliberate posttreatment acts (i.e., bioterrorism). Epidemiological studies are conflicting on the benefits of POU water treatment. One prospective intervention study found that consumers of reverse-osmosis (POU) filtered water had 20%-35% less gastrointestinal illnesses than those consuming regular tap water, with an excess of 14% of illness due to contaminants introduced in the distribution system (Payment 1991, 1997). Two other studies using randomized, blinded, controlled trials determined that the risks were equal among groups supplied with POU-treated water compared to untreated tap water (Hellard et al. 2001; Colford et al. 2003). For immunocompromised populations, POU water treatment devices are recommended by the CDC and USEPA as one treatment option for reducing risks of Cryptosporidium and other types of infectious agents transmitted by drinking water. Other populations, including those experiencing "normal" life stages such as pregnancy, or those very young or very old, might also benefit from the utilization of additional water treatment options beyond the current multibarrier approach of municipal water treatment.
• Reynolds, K. A., Watt, P. M., Boone, S. A., & Gerba, C. P. (2005). Occurrence of bacteria and biochemical markers on public surfaces. International journal of environmental health research, 15(3), 225-34.
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  From 1999-2003, the hygiene of 1061 environmental surfaces from shopping, daycare, and office environments, personal items, and miscellaneous activities (i.e., gymnasiums, airports, movie theaters, restaurants, etc.), in four US cities, was monitored. Samples were analyzed for fecal and total coliform bacteria, protein, and biochemical markers. Biochemical markers, i.e., hemoglobin (blood marker), amylase (mucus, saliva, sweat, and urine marker), and urea (urine and sweat marker) were detected on 3% (26/801); 15% (120/801), and 6% (48/801) of the surfaces, respectively. Protein (general hygiene marker) levels > or = 200 microg/10 cm2 were present on 26% (200/801) of the surfaces tested. Surfaces from children's playground equipment and daycare centers were the most frequently contaminated (biochemical markers on 36%; 15/42 and 46%; 25/54, respectively). Surfaces from the shopping, miscellaneous activities, and office environments were positive for biochemical markers with a frequency of 21% (69/333), 21% (66/308), and 11% (12/105), respectively). Sixty samples were analyzed for biochemical markers and bacteria. Total and fecal coliforms were detected on 20% (12/60) and 7% (4/ 60) of the surfaces, respectively. Half and one-third of the sites positive for biochemical markers were also positive for total and fecal coliforms, respectively. Artificial contamination of public surfaces with an invisible fluorescent tracer showed that contamination from outside surfaces was transferred to 86% (30/ 35) of exposed individual's hands and 82% (29/35) tracked the tracer to their home or personal belongings hours later. Results provide information on the relative hygiene of commonly encountered public surfaces and aid in the identification of priority environments where contaminant occurrence and risk of exposure may be greatest. Children's playground equipment is identified as a priority surface for additional research on the occurrence of and potential exposure to infectious disease causing agents.
• Reynolds, K., & Reynolds, K. A. (2004). Integrated cell culture/PCR for detection of enteric viruses in environmental samples. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.), 268.
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  Recently, an integrated cell culture/polymerase chain reaction (ICC/PCR) technique has been developed for the detection of viruses in environmental samples providing a reliable method for practical analysis and direct monitoring of environmental samples for viral pathogens. CC/PCR allows for detection of infectious viruses in hours to days compared with the days or weeks necessary with cell culture alone. Bacterial indicator organisms are commonly used to evaluate environmental samples with respect to fecal contamination and potential public health impacts. These organisms do not correlate well with the presence of viruses, but a rapid, reliable method was not previously available for direct virus testing. Using ICC/PCR, environmental samples may be directly surveyed for pathogenic viruses, in a timely manner. Direct virus analysis will lead to better assessment of the presence and risk of human enteric viruses in the environment, so that control measures may be developed with true virus occurrence data. The ICC/PCR approach combines two previously applied virus detection methods, conventional cell culture and PCR amplification, utilizing the major advantages and overcoming the major limitations of each methodology when used alone. Cell culture assay is the standard method for the detection of viable human viruses (i.e., poliovirus, coxsackievirus, echovirus, adenovirus, hepatitis A virus, reovirus, and rotavirus) in environmental samples, serving as the method against which all newer technologies are evaluated. Although cell culture is theoretically capable of detecting a single viable virus in relatively large volumes of sample, the time required for confirmed results with conventional cell culture makes it an impractical method for routine monitoring of environmental samples. Furthermore, cell culture does not detect noncytopathogenic viruses (viruses that are viable, infecting cells, and continually spreading to neighboring cells but that do not cause a visible cytopathogenic effect [CPE] on the cell monolayer). Rotavirus and most wild-type hepatitis A viruses (HAV) are infectious to cell cultures but do not produce a clear CPE.
• Reynolds, K., Tanner, B. D., Kuwahara, S., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2004). Evaluation of electrochemically generated ozone for the disinfection of water and wastewater. Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research, 50(1).
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  Effective wastewater treatment is critical to public health and well-being. This is especially true in developing countries, where disinfection of wastewater is frequently inadequate. People who live in these areas may benefit from wastewater disinfection using ozone. This study evaluated the ability of a new electrochemical process of ozone generation, which produced ozone continuously at high pressure and concentration by the electrolysis of water, to disinfect tap water and secondarily treated wastewater. Inactivation of Klebsiella terrigena, Escherichia coli, MS2 bacteriophage and poliovirus 1 was evaluated first in reverse osmosis (RO) treated water. Inactivation of K. terrigena (6-log), E. coli (6-log), MS2 (6-log) and poliovirus 1 (>3-log) was observed after 1 min of ozonation in a 1 L batch reactor. Experiments were then performed to assess the microbiological impact of disinfection using ozone on secondarily treated municipal wastewater. The effect of ozonation on wastewater was determined for total and faecal coliforms, bacteriophages and heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria. Electrochemical ozone generators provided an effective, rapid and low-cost method of wastewater disinfection. Based on the results of this research, electrochemically generated ozone would be well suited to remote, small-scale, disinfection operations and may provide a feasible means of wastewater disinfection in developing countries.

Proceedings Publications

• Yoon, J., Reynolds, K. A., Cho, S., Breshears, L. E., & Chung, S. (2017, Jul.). Rapid and Reliable Norovirus Assay at pg/mL Level Using Smartphone-Based Fluorescence Microscope and a Microfluidic Paper Analytic Device. In ASABE Annual International Meeting, 2017, 1701234.
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  Detection of norovirus from water samples typically requires extremely low limit of detection (LOD), preferably at single virus particle level, since they can be pathogenic at extremely low concentrations. Complicated equipment and/or lengthy procedures are necessary to concentrate large volume of water sample. In addition, this low LOD requirement have traditionally been associated non-reproducible and less convincing assay results. In this work, rapid and reliable detection of norovirus contamination in water samples was demonstrated using an in-house developed smartphone-based fluorescence microscope and a paper microfluidic analytic device (μPAD). Norovirus was concentrated directly on the μPAD, which was fabricated with polarity filter, to further decrease the LOD. Antibody-conjugated submicron (0.5 μm diameter) fluorescent particles were added to this μPAD, and a smartphone based fluorescence microscope imaged these beads directly from the μPAD. Since the spatial resolution of our smartphone-based fluorescence microscope is > 1 μm, only the beads immunoaggltuinated by norovirus can be identified, providing reliable, reproducible, and visually convincing assay results. Using this novel this method, extremely low LOD was demonstrated, 0.01 pg/mL with a benchtop fluorescence microscope and 10 pg/mL to 100 pg/mL with a smartphone based fluorescence microscope. This novel assay can provide a fully unmanned platform for assaying various waterborne pathogens that require extremely low LOD as well as high reliability, while providing low-cost, ease-of-use, and user friendliness appropriate for field applications.
• Yoon, J., Reynolds, K. A., Paz, V., Tat, T., & McCracken, K. E. (2017, Jul.). Immunoagglutinated Particle Rheology Sensing on a Microfluidic Paper-Based Analytical Device for Pathogen Detection. In ASABE Annual International Meeting, 2017, 1701190.
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  Particle immunoagglutination assays have been successfully used in biological sensing for food, water, and environmental applications and medical diagnostics. In this method, interactions between antibody-conjugated particles and biological targets are typically quantified by optical-based sensing, including Mie scattering detection. While these optical methods demonstrate favorable sensitivity and specificity, those that measure light intensity changes are vulnerable to environmental perturbations, such as variations in ambient lighting or humidity. In this work, we investigated a new sensing method based on the particle rheology of immunoagglutinated samples, as seen in droplet spreading on a microfluidic paper-based analytical device (µPAD). By monitoring the overall bulk movement of a particle suspension on paper, these assays are not as critically affected by the sensing environment. Capillary flow of the particle suspension on µPAD channels was tuned by adjusting various parameters, including paper thickness, channel width, channel morphology, particle concentration, and particle size. We then tested the most favorable lateral flow channel design for E. coli K12 sensing in water samples, and applied this overall technique to Zika virus (ZIKV) sensing in biological matrices. From these assays, we achieved similar limits of detection as compared with other demonstrated methods (2 log CFU/mL E. coli; 0.53x10^4 transcription copies/mL). Based on this work, direct detection of immunoagglutinated particle rheology through droplet spreading shows promise as a unique and simple method with applications in automated biosensors for environmental and health samples.

Presentations

• Gerba, C. P., Reynolds, K. A., Gerald, J. K., & Verhougstraete, M. (2019, June). Cost-Benefit of Point of Use Devices for Lead Reductions. American Water Works Association ACE 2019. Denver, CO: WQRF.
• Klug, K. E., Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. (2019, Aug.). Capillary Flow Dynamics-Based Sensing Modality for Direct Environmental Pathogen Monitoring. ACS National Meeting & Expo. San Diego, CA: ACS.
• Yoon, J., Reynolds, K. A., Betancourt, W. Q., Morrison, C. M., Perea, S., Breshears, L. E., & Chung, S. (2019, Aug.). Smartphone-Based Paper Microfluidic Particulometry of Norovirus from Environmental Water Samples at Single Copy Level. ACS National Meeting & Expo. San Diego, CA: ACS.
• Chung, S., Breshears, L. E., Morrison, C. M., Betancourt, W. Q., Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. (2018, May). Single Particle Level Norovirus Detection Assay Using Smartphone-Based Fluorescence Microscope and a Microfluidic Paper Analytic Device. 2nd KU-UA Joint International Symposium. Seoul, South Korea: Korea University.
• Chung, S., Breshears, L. E., Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. (2018, Jan.). Rapid and Reliable Norovirus Assay Using Smartphone-Based Fluorescence Microscope and a Microfluidic Paper Analytic Device. 1st KU-UA Joint International Symposium. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona.
• Wilson, A. M., Reynolds, K. A., & Canales, R. A. (2018, April). Using Simulation Modeling to Estimate the Effect of Human Behaviors and Cleaning Interventions on Infection Risk. American Society of Safety Engineers Luncheon. Tucson, AZ: American Society of Safety Engineers.
• Wilson, A. M., Reynolds, K. A., & Canales, R. A. (2018, Februrary). Stochastic Discrete Event Modeling to Predict Effects of Surface Cleanings on Viral Infection Risk. Emerging Researchers National Conference in STEM. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017, April). Waterborne Threats in the U.S.: Understanding the Impact of Persistent and Emerging Contaminants. Culligan Dealers Association of North America, Inc. (CDNA) Convention and Product Fair. St. Louis, MO: Culligan Dealers Association of North America, Inc. (CDNA).
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017, Mar). Santa Clarita Water Softener Ban and Agricultural Impacts. Water Quality Association Convention and Exposition. Orlando, FL: Water Quality Association.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017, March). Santa Clarita Water Softener Ban and Agricultural Impacts. Water Quality Association Convention and Exposition. Orlando, FL: Water Quality Association.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017, Nov). Valuation of Intervention Impacts in Healthcare using the Evidence Based Science of Quantitative Risk Assessment Modeling. Environment Hygiene Interest Group (EHIG) for Infection Prevention and Control Canada (IPAC). Webinar: Infection Prevention and Control Canada (IPAC).
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017, Oct). Review of the Risk, Communication and Perception of the Santa Clarita Valley Water Softener Ban. Pacific Water Quality Association Annual Meeting (PWQA). Newport Beach, CA: PWQA.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2017, Sept). Surface Decontamination: Challenges and Perspectives. Healthcare Infection Transmission Consortium. Ann Arbor, MI.
• Reynolds, K. A., & Greene, C. (2017, Sept). Catalyst for Change: Overview of the Healthcare Infection Transmission Systems (HITS) Consortium. Healthcare Infection Transmission Systems (HITS) Consortium. Ann Arbor, MI.
• Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. Y. (2017, Dec). Monitoring Water Safety using Smartphone Detection from Paper Microfluidics.. NSF and the Water, Environment and Technology Center Annual Meeting. Tucson, AZ: NSF/WET.
• Reynolds, K. A., Canales, R. A., & Wilson, A. (2017, Oct). Modeling Viral Pathogen Exposure and Risk Reductions for Infection Control Interventions. Lewis Stokes Midwest Center of Excellence (LSMCE) Conference. Indianapolis, IN: Lewis Stokes Midwest Center of Excellence (LSMCE).
• Reynolds, K. A., Gerba, C. P., Sexton, J. D., Humphrey, K., & Leslie, R. (2017, June). Effects of Disinfection on the Spread of Virus in an Outpatient Clinic. Association for Professionals in Infection Control. Portland, OR.
• Reynolds, K. A., Reynolds, K. A., Canales, R. A., Canales, R. A., Gerba, C. P., Gerba, C. P., Sexton, J., & Sexton, J. (2017, June). Understanding the Relationships among HAI, Healthcare Surfaces, and Environmental Interventions using QMRA. 44th Annual Educational Conference of the Association for Professionals in Infection Control. Portland, OR.
• Reynolds, K. A., Sexton, J. D., Scanlon, M. M., & Lee, V. (2017, June). Legionellosis Prevention and Response Training for Environmental Health Professionals. 44th Annual Educational Conference of the Association for Professionals in Infection Control. Portland, OR.
• Wilson, A., Reynolds, K. A., & Canales, R. A. (2017, Oct). Modeling Viral Pathogen Exposure and Risk Reductions for Infection Control Interventions. Louis Stokes Midwest Center of Excellence (LSMCE) Conference. Indianapolis, IN: Lewis Stokes Midwest Center of Excellence (LSMCE).
• Canales, R. A., Littau, S. R., & Reynolds, K. A. (2016, June). Breakfast Symposium: Quantitative risk modeling of healthcare acquired infections and interventions using baseline data and simple models. Association for Professionals in Infection Control Conference. Charlotte, North Carolina.
• Canales, R. A., Littau, S. R., & Reynolds, K. A. (2016, June). Quantitative risk modeling of healthcare acquired infections and interventions using baseline data and simple models. Association for Professionals in Infection Control Conference. Charlotte, North Carolina.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, April). Water and Your Health. The Third Annual Environmental Science and Health Youth Conference. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, April). Waterborne Pathogens: Emerging Issues in Monitoring, Treatment and Control.. Multipure Annual Conference and Exposition. Henderson, NV: Multipure.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, December). Norovirus Detection Using Fluorescence Microscopy. Water, Environment and Technology Center Annual Meeting. Tempe, AZ: NSF/WET.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, February). How to Work with PR and the Media. Mel & Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health Faculty Development Meeting. Tucson, AZ: MEZCOPH.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, January). Smartphone App and Risk Assessment Model Development.. Arizona Water Research Workshop. Tempe, AZ: Tucson Water.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, June). Optimal strategies for monitoring irrigation water quality and the development of guidelines for the irrigation of food crops. The Water Microbiology Conference 2016. Chapel Hill, NC: The Water Institute at the University of North Carolina.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, November). Smartphone for Water Quality: Smartphone Detection from Paper Microfluidics for Monitoring Water Safety.. Arizona Water Conference. Phoenix, AZ: Tucson Water.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, October). The dynamics of microbe spread via hands and fomites throughout an outpatient clinic. ID Week. New Orleans, LA: ID Week.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, October). Water Threats: Known and Unknown. PHSI Dealer Meeting. Las Vegas, NV: PHSI.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, Septembere). Quantifying the Impact of Environmental Services in Infection Prevention: Use of Risk Assessment Modeling Tools to Evaluate Interventions in Infection Control. Association for the Healthcare Environment (AHE) Exchange 2016. Pittsburgh, PA: AHE.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, April). Boil Water Notices in the U.S., 2012-2014. WQA Research Updates. Las Vegas, NV.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, December). Germ Geography: Understanding Public Infection Spread. GOJO/Essendant Conference. San Diego, CA.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, December). Smartphone for Water Quality: Smartphone Detection from Paper Microfluidics for Monitoring Water Safety. Water and Environmental Technology Center/ National Science Foundation industry/University Cooperative Research Center Annual Meeting.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, July). Microbiology of the Built Environment series. Fourth conference of the Microbiology of the Built Environment series. Boulder, CO.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, June). Rapid Microbial Tracer Movement to Soft Surfaces in Patient Care Areas and the Role of Mixed Surfaces in Infection Prevention. APIC 2015 Annual Conference. Nashville, TN.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, March). . Fluoride Risk Assessment/Endetec Monitoring of Coliform Bacteria in Water/ Smartphone Microfluidic Water Quality Monitoring. Tucson Water/University of Arizona Project Updates. Citizen’s Water Advisory Committee. Technical /Planning and Policy Subcommittee. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, March). Can You Risk It? (Use of Tools in Quantitative Risk Assessment to Evaluate Food Safety Challenges and Solutions). Desert Produce Safety Collaborative Conference. Yuma, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, March). Risky Behaviors. (How Personal Perceptions Drive Fears and Behaviors). Desert Produce Safety Collaborative Conference. Yuma, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, March). Waterborne Pathogen Monitoring. Environmental Health Sciences Seminar Series.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, September). Environmental Hygiene: Ebola and Other Emerging Pathogens in Healthcare. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Headquarters. Atlanta, GA.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, September). Evaluation and Control of Infectious Microbes in Healthcare Environments: New Evidence for Best Practices. AHE Exchange 2015. Grapevine, TX.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, September). Point-Of-Use Water Treatment Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Water Quality Association Mid-year Meeting. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015, September). WQA Research Final Report: Boil Water Notices in the U.S., 2012-2014. Water Quality Association Mid-Year Meeting. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, April). HAI Prevention and Control: Soft Surface Decontamination. Medical World Americas Conference. Houston, TX.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, June). Case Studies in Environmental Risk Assessment: Successful translation from the field to public health practice. 3rd Annual Sloan Foundation Meeting on Microbiology of the Built Environment. Boulder, CO.
  More info

  Plenary
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, March). Living with germs. Dean's Circle of Excellence. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, March). New Trends in Environmental Hygiene: Decontaminating Soft Surfaces. Infection Control Today (ICT) Webinar. Online.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, October). Morning session moderator- speakers’ panel discussion. . 5th Annual Food Safety Conference: Food Safety and One Health. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, October). The sexy side of risk assessment. 5th Annual Food Safety Conference: Food Safety and One Health. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, October). Waterborne pathogens: Emerging issues in monitoring, treatment, and control. Maricopa County Waterborne Disease Taskforce. Phoenix, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, September). Soft surface infection prevention. McKesson Webinar Wednesdays. Online.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, Spring). Infection Control Today Q &A on Environmental Contamination. Infection Control Today Webinar. Online.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, Spring). Long-Term Care Facility Infections. Long Term Living. Podcast.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, Spring). New Trends in Environmental Hygiene: Decontaminating Soft Surfaces. Association for the Healthcare Environment (AHE) Webinar. Online.
  More info

  CE credits
• Reynolds, K. A., & Sassi, H. (2014, May). Evaluation of a Hygiene Intervention in a Long-term Care Facility. 114th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology.
• Reynolds, K. A., & Sexton, J. D. (2014, May). Use of Microbial Surrogates to Evaluate Infection Control Procedures in the Healthcare Environment. 114th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology. Boston, MA.
• Victory, K., Cabrera, N. L., Larson, D., Latura, J., Reynolds, K. A., & Beamer, P. (2014, March). Risk and risk perceptions related to drinking bottled water. Risk, Perception and Response Conference. Boston, MA: Harvard University.
• Pleasant, A., Cabe, J., Pereira-Leon, M., & Reynolds, K. A. (2013, November). Evaluating what? Marrying Multiple Methods and Multiple Data Types and Sources: Evaluation of the Arts for Behavior Change Program in Lima, Peru. American Public Health Association. Boston, MA.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2013, Winter). Decontaminating Textiles and Other Soft Surfaces: Evidence-Based Recommendations. Association for the Healthcare Environment (AHE) Exchange 2013 Conference. Indianapolis, IN: Association for the Healthcare Environment (AHE).
• Reynolds, K. A., & Yoon, J. -. (2013, December). Use of Paper Microfluidics and Smartphone Mie Scattering Sensors for Water Quality Monitoring. NSF Water and Environmental Technology Center Industrial Advisory Board Annual MeetingNational Science Foundation.
• Reynolds, K. A., Suppes, L. M., Ernst, K. C., & Gerba, C. P. (2014, Spring). Aquatic Environmental Exposure and Operation Questionnaire Standardization and Validation. 5th International Conference Swimming Pool and Spa. Rome, Italy: National Swimming Pool Foundation (NSPF).
• Suppes, L. M., & Reynolds, K. A. (2013, Spring). Development and Evaluation of a Swimming Pool Exposure Assessment Tool. Arizona County Directors of Environmental Health Services Association/ Southwest Environmental Health Conference. Laughlin, NV: National Swimming Pool Foundation (NSPF).
• Suppes, L. M., Reynolds, K. A., Ernst, K. C., & Gerba, C. P. (2013, January). Influence of Swimmer Activity and Behavior on Pool Water Ingestion. Arizona County Directors of Environmental Health Services Association. Laughlin, NV.

Poster Presentations

• Wilson, A. M., Canales, R. A., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2018, April). How Much Are Surfaces to Blame in Norovirus Outbreaks?. Mel & Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health Research Forum. Tucson, AZ: Mel & Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health.
• Wilson, A. M., Reynolds, K. A., & Canales, R. A. (2018, March). Validation of a Stochastic Discrete Event Model for Predicting Viral Pathogen Exposure. Western Alliance to Expand Student Opportunities Conference. Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ: Western Alliance to Expand Student Opportunities.
• Wilson, A. M., Reynolds, K. A., Robert, C. A., Wilson, A. M., Reynolds, K. A., & Robert, C. A. (2018, June). Predicting Viral Infection Risks and Optimizing Hygiene Protocols Using a Modeling Approach. Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology Annual Conference. Minneapolis, MN: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology.
• Reynolds, K. A., Sexton, J., & Reynolds, A. (2017, April). Quantitative Characterization of Microbial Malodor in Laundry. MEZCOPH Student Poster Forum. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A., Sexton, J., Sassi, H., & Wilson, A. (2017, April). Microbial Transfer from Soft Surfaces and its Control in Healthcare Settings. MEZCOPH Student Poster Forum. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A., Troup, D., Verhougstraete, M., & Sexton, J. (2017, April). Bioaerosol Reduction with a Passive Air Treatment System in a Controlled Chamber. MEZCOPH Student Poster Forum. Tucson, AZ.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, December). Viruses as New Indicators of Human and Cattle Fecal Contamination of Irrigation Water. Water and Energy Sustainable Technology Center. Tucson, AZ: WEST Center.
• Ornelas, Y., Reynolds, K. A., Abrell, L. M., Grigera, S., & Beamer, P. (2014, October). Microbial and inorganic contamination in private wells along the Santa Cruz River, Arizona. International Society of Exposure Science. Cincinnati, OH.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2014, June). Impact of a Hygiene Intervention on Virus Transmission in a Long Term Care Facility. Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology. Anaheim, CA.
• Victory, K., Cabrera, N. L., Larson, D., Reynolds, K. A., Latura, J., & Beamer, P. (2014, March). Risk perception of drinking water quality and in a US-Mexico Border community. Risk, Perception, and Response Conference. Harvard Center for Risk Analysis. Boston, MA.
• Victory, K., Reynolds, K. A., Cabrera, N. L., Larson, D., Burgess, J. L., & Beamer, P. (2014, April). Comparison of Chemical and Microbial Contaminants in Tap, Bottled and Vended Water in a U.S.-Mexico Border Community. UA Poster Forum. Tucson, AZ.
• Victory, K., Reynolds, K. A., Cabrera, N. L., Larson, D., Latura, J., Burgess, J. L., & Beamer, P. I. (2014, October). Comparison of CHemical and Microbial Contaminants in tap, Bottled, and Vended Water in a U.S.-Mexico Border Community. International Society of Exposure Science. Cincinnati, OH.
• Canales, R. A., & Reynolds, K. A. (2013, December). Simulating Non-Dietary Ingestion of Listeria monocytogenes from Residential Surfaces. Society for Risk Analysis Conference. Baltimore, MD: Society for Risk Analysis.
• Reynolds, K. A., & Sexton, J. D. (2013, October). Evaluation of a Soft Surface Sanitizer in Healthcare Environments. IDWeek 2013. San Francisco, CA.
• Reynolds, K. A., & Supes, L. M. (2013, May). Swimming Pool Water Ingestion Exposure Assessment using Videography and Exposure Questionnaires. 113th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology. Denver, CO.
• Reynolds, K. A., Sexton, J. D., & Valdez, M. K. (2013, May). Transfer and Control of Microbes in Emergency Vehicles. 113th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology. Denver, CO.
• Reynolds, K. A., Valdez, M. K., & Sexton, J. D. (2013, March). Transfer and control of infectious microbes in fire apparatuses. SEHSA. Public Health Research Poster Forum. Tucson, AZ.
• Sexton, J. D., Valdez, M. K., & Reynolds, K. A. (2013, March). Occurrence of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in fire stations. Student Environmental Health Science Association/ Public Health Research Poster Forum. Tucson, AZ.
• Valdez, M. K., Sexton, J. D., & Reynolds, K. A. (2013, May). Occurrence of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in fire stations. 113th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology. Denver, CO.
• Victory, K., Cabrera, N. L., Larson, D., Latura, J., Reynolds, K. A., & Beamer, P. -. (2013, December). Risk Perception of Drinking Water Quality in a U.S.-Mexico Border Community. Society for Risk Analysis Annual Conference. Baltimore, MD.
• Victory, K., Larson, D., Cabrera, N. L., Reynolds, K. A., & Beamer, P. -. (2013, March). Risk perception, drinking water source quality in a low-income Latino community along the US-Mexico Border. SEHSA. Public Health Research Poster Forum. Tucson, AZ.

Reviews

• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Celebration of the Safe Drinking Water Act’s 40th Anniversary and Recognition of the Challenges Ahead.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Deadly Legionella: Commonly Found in U.S. Water Systems.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Drinking Water Disinfection: Options and Hazard Management.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Graywater: Reuse and Risks Revisited.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Human Perception is a Failed Indicator of Water Quality Concern.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Industrial Waste Risk and Management in Drinking Water Sources.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Methadone Creates Harmful Byproducts in Treated Drinking Water.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. New Tools for Assessing Groundwater Risks.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. POU Prevention of Healthcare Acquired Waterborne Infections.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. POU Water Filtration Saving Lives in California.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Warmer Waters Heighten Toxic Algae Production.
• Reynolds, K. A. (2015. Why a POU device?.

Others

• Reynolds, K. A. (2016, November). Boil Water Notices in the United States- 2012-2014. Water Quality Association Research Foundation..
• Verhougstraete, M., Gerba, C. P., & Reynolds, K. A. (2016, September). Cost benefit of point-of-use devices in reduction of health risks from drinking water..
  More info

  Verhougstraete, M.P., K., Reynolds, A. Tamimi, and C. Gerba. 2016. Cost benefit of point-of-use devices in reduction of health risks from drinking water. A technical report For Water Quality Research Foundation.