Scott B Going

Interests

Research

Body Composition: • Development of methods for assessment of human body composition • Changes in body composition (muscle, adipose tissue, bone) with growth and maturation • Relationships between body composition and disease risk • Effects of chronic exercise on bone and soft tissue composition • Childhood and adult obesity • Weight loss interventions Physical Activity • Assessment methods • Childhood and adult activity patterns; relationship to fitness and chronic disease risk • Physiological/morphological adaptations to chronic exercise • School-based and community physical activity interventions Childhood • Effects of impact exercise on bone mass and geometry • Pediatric obesity and adolescent and adult disease risk factors Aging  Changes in muscle mass, bone mass, and consequence for functional capacity  Sarcopenia  Disability and quality of life  Osteoporosis

Teaching

Body Composition

Courses

Scholarly Contributions

Chapters

• Going, S. B., & Hingle, M. D. (2019). Body Composition. In Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness: The Physical Best Teacher's Guide, 4th edition(pp Chapter 6 p. 137-159). Human Kinetics.
• Bea, J. W., & Going, S. B. (2017). Changes in body composition with exercise in overweight and obese children. In Body Composition: Health and Performance in Exercise and Sport. Taylor and Francis, New York, NY.
• Going, S. B., Farr, J. N., & Bea, J. W. (2017). Physical activity and body composition changes in overweight and obese children. In Body Composition in Health and Performance in Sport and Work(pp 129-146). CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group.
• Hingle, M. D., Laddu, D. R., & Going, S. B. (2016). Physical Activity and the Mediterranean Diet.. In Mediterranean Diet: Dietary Guidelines and Impact on Health and Disease(pp 219-228). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
• Hingle, M. D., Laddu, D., & Going, S. B. (2016). Synergistic effects of physical activity and the Mediterranean diet. In Mediterranean Diet: Impact on Health and Disease. Spring Science.
• Hingle, M. D., Laddu, D., & Going, S. B. (2015). Synergistic effects of physical activity and the Mediterranean diet. In Mediterranean Diet: Impact on Health and Disease. Spring Science.
• Going, S. B. (2014). Body Composition Assessments. In Fitnessgram/Activitygram Reference Guide, 4th edition. A. Plowman & M.D. Meredith (eds).. Dallas, TX: The Cooper Institute.
• Going, S. B., Castelli, D., Hillman, C., Woodward-Lopez, G., & Nader, P. (2013). Physical Activity and Physical Education: Relationship to Growth, Development, and Health. In Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine (IOM), The National Academic Press.
• Going, S. B., & Williams, D. P. (2012). Body Composition in Exercise Physiology. In Encyclopedia of Lifestyle Medicine and Health(pp 143-147). Sage Publications, Inc.
• Going, S., & Laudermilk, M. (2012). Osteoporosis and Strength Training. In Encyclopedia of Lifestyle Medicine and Health(pp 842-851). Sage Publications, Inc.
• Going, S., & Williams, D. (2012). Body Composition, Health and Performance. In Encyclopedia of Lifestyle Medicine and Health. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
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  Editor(s): Rippe, JM | Rippe Lifestyle Institute | University of Central Florida | Tufts University Medical School
• Going, S., Hingle, M., & Farr, J. (2012). Body Composition. In Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 11th edition(p. 1648). Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
• Hongu, K., Going, S., & Lee, V. (2012). Body Composition: Measurement Techniques. In Encyclopedia of Lifestyle Medicine and Health. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
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  Editor(s): Rippe, JM | Rippe Lifestyle Institute | University of Central Florida | Tufts University Medical School
• Going, S. B., Laddu, D., Dow, C., Hingle, M., Thomson, C., & Going, S. (2011). Review of Evidence-Based Strategies to Treat Obesity in Adults. In Nutrition in Clinical Practice(pp 512-525). Sage Publications.
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  26(5)
• Going, S., & Hingle, M. (2011). Physical activity in diet-induced disease causation and prevention in women and men. In Modern Dietary Fat Intakes in Disease Prevention. Totowa, NY: Humana Press.
• Going, S., & Williams, D. (2011). Body Composition. In Health and Performance, Encyclopedia of Lifestyle and Health. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
• Going, S., Hingle, M., & Farr, J. (2011). Body Composition. In Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 11th edition. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
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  Editor(s): Ross, C | Caballero, B | Cousins, RJ | Tucker, KL | Ziegler, TR
• Going, S., Kyzer, M., Association, N., & Education, P. (2011). Body Composition. In Physical Education for Lifelong Fitness: The Physical Best Teacher s Guide, 3rd edition(pp 127-143). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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  Editor(s): Ayers, SF | Sariscany, MJ

Journals/Publications

• Klimentidis, Y. C., Chen, Z., Funk, J. L., Going, S. B., Bea, J. W., Bland, V. L., Yaghootkar, H., Arora, A., & Ramadan, F. (2022). Metabolically favorable adiposity and bone mineral density: a Mendelian randomization analysis. Obesity, 31(1), 267-278. doi:10.1002/oby.23604
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  This analysis assessed the putative causal association between genetically predicted percent body fat and areal bone mineral density (aBMD) and, more specifically, the association between genetically predicted metabolically "favorable adiposity" (MFA) and aBMD at clinically relevant bone sites.Mendelian randomization was used to assess the relationship of MFA and percent body fat with whole-body, lumbar spine, femoral neck, and forearm aBMD. Sex-stratified and age-stratified exploratory analyses were conducted.In all MR analyses, genetically predicted MFA was inversely associated with aBMD for the whole body (β = -0.053, p = 0.0002), lumbar spine (β = -0.075; p = 0.0001), femoral neck (β = -0.045; p = 0.008), and forearm (β = -0.115; p = 0.001). This negative relationship was strongest in older individuals and did not differ by sex. The relationship between genetically predicted percent body fat and aBMD was nonsignificant across all Mendelian randomization analyses. Several loci that were associated at a genome-wide significance level (p < 5 × 10-8 ) in opposite directions with body fat and aBMD measures were also identified.This study did not support the hypothesis that MFA protects against low aBMD. Instead, it showed that MFA may result in lower aBMD. Further research is needed to understand how MFA affects aBMD and other components of bone health such as bone turnover, bone architecture, and osteoporotic fractures.
• Hoda, A., Eaton, C., Garcia, L., Going, S. B., Hsu, A., Lamonte, M., Manson, J., Peterson, D., Phillips, L., & Wong, N. (2021). Metabolically Healthy/Unhealthy Overweight/Obesity Associations With Incident Heart Failure in Postmenopausal Women: The Women's Health Initiative.. Circulation. Heart failure, CIRCHEARTFAILURE120007297.
• Ames, S., Anton-Culver, H., Garcia, L., Going, S. B., Hsu, A., Peterson, D., Wong, N., & Xie, B. (2020). Sociodemographic and metabolic risk characteristics associated with metabolic weight categories in the Women's Health Initiative.. Cardiovascular endocrinology & metabolism, 9(2), 42-48.
• Ames, S., Anton-culver, H., Garcia, L., Going, S. B., Hsu, A., Manson, J., Peterson, D., Phillips, L., Wong, N., & Xie, B. (2020). Incidence of diabetes according to metabolically healthy or unhealthy normal weight or overweight/obesity in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative.. Menopause (New York, N.Y.), 27(6), 640-647.
• Bea, J., Bland, V., Blew, R., Going, S. B., Lee, V., & Roe, D. (2020). Physical activity, sedentary time, and longitudinal bone strength in adolescent girls.. Osteoporosis international : a journal established as result of cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA, 31(10), 1943-1954.
• Bea, J., Bland, V., Going, S. B., Heatherington-rauth, M., & Howe, C. (2020). Association of objectively measured physical activity and bone health in children and adolescents: a systematic review and narrative synthesis.. Osteoporosis international : a journal established as result of cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA, 31(10), 1865-1894.
• Bland, V., Bea, J. W., Blew, R., Roe, D., Lee, V. L., Funk, J. L., & Going, S. B. (2021). Influence of Changes in Soft Tissue Composition on Changes in Bone Strength in Peripubertal Girls: The STAR Longitudinal Study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 36, 123-132. doi:10.1002/jbmr.4168
• Going, S. B., Cordola Hsu, A. R., Ames, S. L., Xie, B., Peterson, D. V., Garcia, L., Wong, N. D., & Anton-Culver, H. (2020). Abstract P285: Sociodemographic and Metabolic Risk Characteristics Associated with Metabolic Weight Categories in the Women's Health Initiative. Circulation, 141(Suppl_1). doi:10.1161/circ.141.suppl_1.p285
• Going, S. B., Funk, J. L., Roe, D. J., Bland, V. L., Bea, J. W., Blew, R. M., & Lee, V. R. (2020). Influence of Changes in Soft Tissue Composition on Changes in Bone Strength in Peripubertal Girls: The STAR Longitudinal Study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 36(1), 123-132. doi:10.1002/jbmr.4168
• Bea, J., Bland, V., Blew, D., Blew, R., Going, S. B., & Lee, V. (2019). Relationship Of Physical Activity With Bone Parameters In Young Hispanic Girls: 2481 Board #145 May 31 11:00 AM - 12:30 PM. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 51(supplement), 682-683.
• Bea, J., Bland, V., Blew, R., Going, S. B., & Lee, V. (2019). Sedentary Time Predicts 2-Year Longitudinal Bone Strength in Hispanic Girls: 2476 Board #140 May 31 11:00 AM - 12:30 PM. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 51(Supplement), 680-681.
• Bea, J., Blew, R., Funk, J., Going, S. B., Hetherington-rauth, M., Lee, V., Roe, D., & Sardinha, L. (2019). Relationship of cardiometabolic risk biomarkers with DXA and pQCT bone health outcomes in young girls.. Bone, 120, 452-458.
• Caan, B., Chan, A., Chlebowski, R., Going, S. B., Han, J., Lee, D., Noguti, J., Pak, Y., & Qi, L. (2019). Interaction of body mass index or waist-to-hip ratio and sun exposure associated with nonmelanoma skin cancer: A prospective study from the Women's Health Initiative.. Cancer, 125(7), 1133-1142.
• Hingle, M. D., Going, S. B., Turner, T., Stump, C. S., C, U., Kutob, R. M., Roe, D., Roe, D., C, U., Kutob, R. M., Turner, T., Stump, C. S., Going, S. B., & Hingle, M. D. (2019). Feasibility of a family-focused YMCA-based diabetes prevention program in youth: the E.P.I.C. Kids (Encourage, Practice, and Inspire Change) Study. Preventive Medicine Reports. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100840
• Luo, J., Manson, J. E., Hendryx, M., Shadyab, A. H., Johnson, K. C., Dinh, P. C., Going, S. B., Chlebowski, R., Stefanick, M. L., & Margolis, K. L. (2019). Physical activity and weight gain after smoking cessation in postmenopausal women. Menopause, 26(1), 16-23. doi:10.1097/GME.0000000000001168
• Abraham, I., Bea, J., Blew, R., Caan, B., Going, S. B., Hsu, C., Irving, A., & Kwan, M. (2018). Use of iDXA spine scans to evaluate total and visceral abdominal fat.. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 30(1), e23057.
• Banack, H. R., Stokes, A., Fox, M. P., Hovey, K. M., Cespeded-Feliciano, E. M., LeBlanc, E., Bird, C., Going, S. B., & al, e. (2018). Stratified probabilistic bias analysis for BMI-related exposure misclassification in postmenopausal women. Epidemiology, 29(5), 604-613. doi:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000863
• Bea, J. W., Funk, J. L., Hetherington-Rauth, M. C., Wertheim, B. C., Mosquiera, L., Thuraisingam, R., Lee, V., Blew, R., Lohman, T. G., Roe, D., & Going, S. B. (2018). Anthropometry versus imaging for the prediction of inflammation among Hispanic girls. Obesity (Silver Spring), 26(10), 1594-1602. doi:10.1002/oby.22265
• Bea, J. W., Going, S. B., Wertheim, B. C., Bassford, T. L., LaCroix, A. Z., Wright, N. C., Nicolas, J. S., Heymsfield, S. B., & Chen, Z. (2018). Body composition and physical function in the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Prev Med Rep, 11, 15-22. doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2018.05.007
• Bea, J., Blew, D., Blew, R., Galons, J., Going, S. B., Hagio, T., Hetherington-rauth, M., Lee, V., & Lohman, T. (2018). Estimation of visceral fat in 9- to 13-year-old girls using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and anthropometry.. Obesity science & practice, 4(5), 437-447.
• Blew, R. M., Lee, V. L., Bea, J. W., Hetherington-Rauth, M., Galons, J. P., Altbach, M., Lohman, T., & Going, S. B. (2018). Validation of pQCT-derived thigh adipose tissue sub-compartments in young girls using a 3 T MRI scanner. Journal of Clinical Densitometry, 21(4), 583-594. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2018.03.002
• Blew, R., Lee, V., Bea, J. W., Hetherington-Rauth, M., Galons, J., Altbach, M. I., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2018). Validation of Peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography-Derived Thigh Adipose Tissue Subcompartments in Young Girls Using a 3 T MRI Scanner. Journal of Clinical Densitometry, 583-594.
• Follis, S., Cook, A., Bea, J. W., Going, S. B., Laddu, D., Cauley, J. A., Shadyab, A. H., Stefanick, M. L., & Chen, Z. (2018). The Association between Sarcopenic Obesity and Falls in a Multiethnic Cohort of Postmenopausal Women. J Am Geriatr Soc., 66(12), 2314–2320.. doi:doi: 10.1111/jgs.15613
• Going, S. B., Bea, J. W., Follis, S., Cook, A., Laddu, D., Cauley, J. A., Shadyab, A. H., Stefanick, M. L., & Chen, Z. (2018). Association Between Sarcopenic Obesity and Falls in a Multiethnic Cohort of Postmenopausal Women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 66(12), 2314-2320. doi:10.1111/jgs.15613
• Going, S. B., Going, S. B., Chen, Z., Chen, Z., Alexander, G. E., Alexander, G. E., Mandarino, L. J., Mandarino, L. J., Garcia, D. O., Garcia, D. O., Bea, J. W., Bea, J. W., Raichlen, D. A., Raichlen, D. A., Klimentidis, Y. C., & Klimentidis, Y. C. (2017). Genome-wide association study of habitual physical activity in over 277,000 UK Biobank participants indentifies novel variants and genetic correlations with chronotype and obesity related traits. International Journal of Obesity.
• Going, S. B., Hongu, N., Kimura, Y., Miyazaki, H., Nakagawa, N., Shimada, M., Yamamoto, N., & Yoshitake, Y. (2018). Leg Extensor Power And Healthy Aging Are Associated In Older Adults: 10-year Follow-up Study 329 Board #170 May 30 9 30 AM - 11 00 AM. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 50(5S), 69.
• Going, S., Chan, A. A., Noguti, J., Pak, Y., Qi, L., Caan, B., Han, J., Chlebowski, R. T., & Lee, D. J. (2018). Interaction of body mass index or waist‐to‐hip ratio and sun exposure associated with nonmelanoma skin cancer: A prospective study from the Women’s Health Initiative. Cancer, 125(7), 1133-1142. doi:10.1002/cncr.31810
• Hetherington-Rauth, M. C., Bea, J. W., Blew, R. M., Funk, J. L., Hingle, M. D., Roe, D., Lee, V. R., Wheeler, M. D., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2018). Relative contributions of lean and fat mass to bone strength in young Hispanic and non-Hispanic girls. Bone, 113, 144-150. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2018.05.023
• Hetherington-Rauth, M., Bea, J. W., Lee, V., Blew, R., Funk, J. L., Roe, D., & Going, S. B. (2018). Relationship between fat distribution and cardiometabolic risk in preadolescent Hispanic girls. American Journal of Human Biology.
• Klimentidis, Y. C., Raichlen, D. A., Bea, J. W., Garcia, D. O., Mandarino, L. J., Alexander, G. E., Chen, Z., & Going, S. B. (2018). Genome-wide association study of habitual physical activity in over 377,000 UK Biobank participants indentifies novel variants and genetic correlations with chronotype and obesity related traits. International Journal of Obesity. doi:10.1038/s41366-018-0120-3
• Klimentidis, Y. C., Raichlen, D. A., Bea, J. W., Garcia, D. O., Wineinger, N. E., Mandarino, L. J., Alexander, G. E., Chen, Z., & Going, S. B. (2018). In response to: ‘Information bias in measures of self-reported physical activity’. Int J Obes (Lond), 42(12), 2064-2065. doi:10.1038/s41366-018-0251-6
• Lee, Y., Savaiano, D., McCabe, G., Pottenger, F., Welshimer, K., Weaver, C., McCabe, L., Novotny, R., Read, M., Going, S. B., Mason, A., Van Loan, M., & Boushey, C. J. (2018). Behavioral intervention in adolescents improves bone mass; yet lactose maldigestion is a barrier. Nutrients. doi:10.3390/nu10040421
• Bea, J. W., Howe, C. L., Blew, R. M., Hetherington-Rauth, M., & Going, S. B. (2017). Resistance training effects on metabolic function among youth: A systematic review. Pediatric Exercise Science, 0(0), 1-42. doi:10.1123/pes.2016-0143
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  [E-pub ahead of print]
• Bea, J. W., Hsu, C., Blew, R. M., Irving, A. P., Caan, B. J., Kwan, M. L., Abraham, I., & Going, S. B. (2017). Use of iDXA spine scans to evaluate total and visceral abdominal fat. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HUMAN BIOLOGY, 30(1).
• Bea, J. W., Thomson, C. A., Wallace, R. B., Seguin, R. A., Wu, C., Going, S. B., LaCroix, A., Eaton, C., Ockene, J. K., LaMonte, M. J., Jackson, R., Mysiw, W. J., & Wactawski-Wende, J. (2017). Changes in Physical Activity, Sedentary Time, and Risk of Falling in the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study. Preventitive Medicine, 95, 103-109. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.11.025
• Datta, M., Going, S. B., Li, W., Rillamas-sun, E., Snetselaar, L., Zaslavsky, O., & Zelber-sagi, S. (2017). Association of Dynamics in Lean and Fat Mass Measures with Mortality in Frail Older Women.. The journal of nutrition, health & aging, 21(1), 112-119.
• Going, S. B. (2017). Resistance training effects on insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome among youth: A systematic review. Pediatric Exercise Science.
• Going, S. B., Guertin, D. P., Marsh, S. E., Chalfoun, N. V., Gimblett, H. R., Orr, B. J., Zuniga Teran, A. A., Going, S. B., Guertin, D. P., Marsh, S. E., Chalfoun, N. V., Gimblett, H. R., Orr, B. J., Zuniga Teran, A. A., Going, S. B., Guertin, D. P., Marsh, S. E., Chalfoun, N. V., Gimblett, H. R., , Orr, B. J., et al. (2017). Designing healthy communities: Testing the walkability model. . Designing healthy communities: Testing the walkability model, 6(1), 63-73.
• Going, S. B., Kabat, G. C., Kim, M. Y., Lee, J. S., Ho, G. Y., Beebe-Dimmer, J., Manson, J. E., Chlebowski, R. T., & Rohan, T. E. (2017). Metabolic Obesity Phenotypes and Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 26(12), 1730-1735. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-17-0495
• Harrington, L., Hornbrook, M., Going, S. B., Temple, L., Grant, M., Garcia, D. O., Wendel, C. S., & Krouse, R. S. (2017). Physical Activity, Bowel Function, and Quality of Life Among Rectal Cancer Survivors. Qual Life Res, 26(11), 3131-3142.
• Herrinton, L. J., McMullen, C. K., Bulkley, J. E., Hornbrook, M. C., Going, S. B., Temple, L. K., Grant, M., Garcia, D. O., Wendel, C. S., & Krouse, R. S. (2015). Physical Activity, Bowel Function and Quality of Life among Rectal Cancer Survivors. BJS.
• Hetherington-Rauth, M. C., Bea, J. W., Blew, R., Lee, V., Funk, J. L., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2017). Comparison of direct measures of adiposity with indirect measures for predicting cardiometabolic risk factors in preadolescent girls. Nutrition Journal.
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  In Press
• Kabat, G., Kim, M., Lee, J., Ho, G., Going, S. B., Beebe-Dimmer, J., Manson, J., Chlebowski, R., & Rohan, T. (2017). Metabolic obesity phenotypes and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Cancer Epidemology, Biomarkers & Prevention.
• Laddu, D. R., Wertheim, B. C., Garcia, D. O., Brunner, R. B., Groessl, E., Shadyab, A. H., Going, S. B., LaMonte, M. J., Cannell, B., LeBoff, M. S., Cauley, J. A., Thomson, C. A., & Stefanick, M. L. (2017). Associations betweenself reported Physical Activity on Physical Performance Measures Over Time in Postmenopausal Women: The Women’s Health Initiative. Journal of American Geriatrics Society, 65(10), 2176–2181. doi:10.1111/jgs.14991
• Thomson, C. A., Going, S. B., Laddu, D., Wertheim, B. C., Garcia, D. O., Brunner, R., Shadyab, A. H., Groessl, E., LaMonte, M. J., Cannell, B., LeBoff, M., Cauley, J. A., & Stefanick, M. L. (2017). Abstract P298: Associations Between Time-varying Physical Activity and Physical Performance Measures in Postmenopausal Women: the Women’s Health Initiative. Circulation, 135(suppl_1). doi:10.1161/circ.135.suppl_1.p298
• Zaslavsky, O., Rillamas-Sun, E., Li, W., Going, S., Datta, M., Snetselaar, L., & Zelber-Sagi, S. (2017). ASSOCIATION OF DYNAMICS IN LEAN AND FAT MASS MEASURES WITH MORTALITY IN FRAIL OLDER WOMEN. JOURNAL OF NUTRITION HEALTH & AGING, 21(1), 112-119.
• Zaslavsky, O., Sagi, S. Z., Li, W., & Going, S. B. (2015). Association of diet and body composition with risks of all-cause mortality and incident hip fracture in physically frail older women. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging.
• Bea, J. W., Lee, M. C., Going, S. B., Hsu, C., Lohman, T. G., Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., Caan, B., & Kwan, M. (2016). Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry spine scans to determine abdominal fat in postmenopausal women. American Journal of Human Biology, 28(6), 918-926. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22892
• Bea, J. W., Lee, M. C., Hsu, C. H., Going, S. B., Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., Caan, B., Kwan, M., & Lohman, T. G. (2016). Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry spine scans to determine abdominal fat in postmenopausal women. Clinical Densitometry.
• Going, S. B., Gomez, S., Hingle, M., Hopkins, L., Kutob, R., Merchant, N., Stump, C., & Turner, T. (2016). Evaluating the Public Health Impact of a Community-Based Family-Focused Diabetes Prevention Program Using RE-AIM. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 48(7), S47.
• Going, S., Zaslavsky, O., Li, W., Datta, M., Snetselaar, L., & Zelber-Sagi, S. (2016). Association between body composition and hip fractures in older women with physical frailty: Adiposity and hip fracture in frailty. Geriatrics & Gerontology International, 17(6), 898-904. doi:10.1111/ggi.12798
• Harrington, L., Hornbrook, M., Going, S. B., Temple, L., Grant, M., Garcia, D. O., Wendel, C. S., & Krouse, R. S. (2016). Physical Activity, Bowel Function, and Quality of Life Among Rectal Cancer Survivors. Journal of Cancer Survivorship.
• Sriram, U., LaCroix, A. Z., Barrington, W. E., Corbie-Smith, G., Garcia, L., Going, S. B., LaMonte, M. J., Manson, J. E., Sealy-Jefferson, S., Stefanick, M. L., Waring, M. E., & Seguin, R. A. (2016). Neighborhood Walkability and Adiposity in the WHI Cohort. Am J Prev Med.
• Zaslavsky, O., Li, W., Going, S. B., Datta, M., Snetselaar, L., & Zelber-Sagi, S. (2016). Association between body composition and hip fractures in older women with physical frailty. Geriatr Gerontol Int. doi:10.1111/ggi.12798
• Zuniga Teran, A. A., Orr, B., Gimblett, H. R., Chalfoun, N. V., Marsh, S. E., Guertin, D. P., & Going, S. B. (2017). Designing healthy communities: Testing the walkability model. Frontiers in Architectural Research, 6(1), 63-73. doi:10.1016/j.foar.2016.11.005
• Zuniga Teran, A. A., Orr, B., Gimblett, H. R., Going, S. B., Chalfoun, N. V., Guertin, D. P., & Marsh, S. E. (2016). Designing healthy communities: A walkability analysis of LEED-ND. Frontiers in Architectural Research. doi:10.1016/j.foar.2016.09.004
• Zuniga Teran, A. A., Orr, B., Gimblett, H. R., Going, S. B., Chalfoun, N. V., Guertin, D. P., & Marsh, S. E. (2016). Designing healthy communities: Testing the walkability model. Frontiers in Architectural Research. doi:10.1016/j.foar.2016.11.005
• Bea, J., Chen, Z., Going, S. B., Hsieh, P., Klimentidis, Y., & Lohman, T. (2015). High genetic risk individuals benefit less from resistance exercise intervention.. International journal of obesity (2005), 39(9), 1371-5.
• Blew, R., Lee, V., Bea, J. W., Hetherington-Rauth, M., Silvain, D., Galons, J., Altbach, M. I., & Going, S. B. (2017). In vivo validation of pQCT-derived thigh fat sub-compartments using a 3 T MRI scanner. Journal of Clinical Densitometry.
• Crandall, C. J., Yildiz, V., Wactawski-Wende, J., Johnson, K. C., Chen, Z., & Going, S. B. (2015). Postmenopausal weight change and incidence of fracture: post-hoc findings from the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study and Clinical Trials. British Medical Journal.
• Going, S., Funk, J., Thomson, C., Vassallo, D., Jacobs, E., Blew, R., & Lee, V. (2015). Physical Activity is Associated with Lower Adiposity Independent of Diet Quality in Adolescent Girls. The FASEB Journal, 29(S1). doi:10.1096/fasebj.29.1_supplement.135.8
• Harris, M., Farrell, V., Houtkooper, L. K., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. (2015). Associations of polyunsaturated fatty acid intake with bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. Journal of Osteoporosis, 8.
• Hingle, M., Turner, T., Kutob, R., Merchant, N., Roe, D., Stump, C., & Going, S. B. (2015). The EPIC Kids Study: A Randomized Family-Focused YMCA-Based Intervention to Prevent Type 2 Diabetes in At-Risk Youth. BMC Public Health.
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  BMC Public Health. 2015 Dec 18;15:1253. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-2595-3.
• Klimentidis, Y. C., Bea, J. W., Lohman, T. G., Hsieh, P. S., Going, S. B., & Chen, Z. (2015). Resistance exercise intervention results in less weight loss among individuals at high genetic risk for obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 39(9), 1371-1375.
• Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., Farr, J. N., Schiferl, D. J., & Going, S. B. (2014). Standardizing evaluation of pQCT image quality in the presence of subject movement: Qualitative versus quantitative assessment. Calcified Tissue International, 94(2), 202-211.
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  Abstract: Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) is an essential tool for assessing bone parameters of the limbs, but subject movement and its impact on image quality remains a challenge to manage. The current approach to determine image viability is by visual inspection, but pQCT lacks a quantitative evaluation. Therefore, the aims of this study were to (1) examine the reliability of a qualitative visual inspection scale and (2) establish a quantitative motion assessment methodology. Scans were performed on 506 healthy girls (9-13 years) at diaphyseal regions of the femur and tibia. Scans were rated for movement independently by three technicians using a linear, nominal scale. Quantitatively, a ratio of movement to limb size (%Move) provided a measure of movement artifact. A repeat-scan subsample (n = 46) was examined to determine %Move's impact on bone parameters. Agreement between measurers was strong (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.732 for tibia, 0.812 for femur), but greater variability was observed in scans rated 3 or 4, the delineation between repeat and no repeat. The quantitative approach found ≥95 % of subjects had %Move 25 % grouping. A pQCT visual inspection scale can be a reliable metric of image quality, but technicians may periodically mischaracterize subject motion. The presented quantitative methodology yields more consistent movement assessment and could unify procedure across laboratories. Data suggest a delineation of 25 % movement for determining whether a diaphyseal scan is viable or requires repeat. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York.
• Brown, K., Edge, M., Gable, L., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L., Jakicic, J., Krautheim, A., Manore, M., Peters, J., & Steiber, A. (2014). Energy balance at a crossroads: translating the science into action.. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 114(7), 1113-9.
• Brown, K., Edge, M., Gable, L., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L., Jakicic, J., Krautheim, A., Manore, M., Peters, J., & Steiber, A. (2014). Energy balance at a crossroads: translating the science into action.. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 46(7), 1466-73.
• Farr, J. N., Laddu, D., Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., & Going, S. B. (2013). Effects of Physical Activity and Muscle Quality on Bone Development in Girls. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 45(12), 2332-2340.
• Farr, J., Going, S. B., & Laddu, D. (2014). Exercise, Hormones and Skeletal Adaptations during childhood and adolescence. Pediatric Exercise Science, 26, 384-391.
• Going, S. B., Gunter, K., Hongu, N., Houtkooper, L., Lindsay, A., Manore, M., & Williams, J. (2014). Exercise is Medicine (EIM) for Community Health Programs: Expanding to the National Cooperative Extension System. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 46, 66-67.
• Going, S., Lee, V., Blew, R., Laddu, D., & Hetherington-Rauth, M. (2014). Top 10 research questions related to body composition. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 85(1), 38-48.
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  Abstract: An understanding of body composition is crucial to understanding human health, disease, and function. Research in body composition has focused on the development of assessment methods, description of normal changes in body composition with growth and development and aging, and the changes that occur in body composition in response to challenges ranging from illness to planned interventions. Each focus is significant, and in a sense, they are interdependent, because technological advances allow more sophisticated questions to be addressed, which in turn drives the development of better methods. Significant advances have been made in each area, although perhaps surprisingly basic questions remain. For example, growth trajectories are often estimated from cross-sectional data, given the resources needed for long-term observational studies, and thus, longitudinal descriptive data are still needed. Along with advances in laboratory methods, development of field methods remains relevant for screening and clinical practice. Despite recognition of wide interindividual differences in intervention response, average outcomes continue to be emphasized. With technological advances, it is now possible to examine genetic along with nongenetic factors that underlie changes in body composition, and these techniques need to be applied in long-term, well-controlled trials. In this article, we review 10 key questions in related areas in which research is needed to continue to advance the field. Copyright © 2014 AAHPERD.
• Hingle, M., Nichter, M., Medeiros, M., & Grace, S. (2013). Texting for Health: The Use of Participatory Methods to Develop Healthy Lifestyle Messages for Teens. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 45, 12-19.
• Hongu, N. K., Going, S. B., Orr, B., Merchant, N., Hingle, M. D., Roe, D., Greenblatt, Y. V., & Houtkooper, L. (2014). Mobile technologies for promoting health and physical activity.. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal.
• Hongu, N., Going, S. B., Orr, B. J., Hingle, M. D., Roe, D., Houtkooper, L. K., Merchant, N. C., & Yael, G. V. (2014). Mobile Technologies for Promoting Health and Physical Activity. American College of Sports Medicine, 18(4), 8-15.
• Hongu, N., Going, S. B., Orr, B. J., Merchant, N. C., Hingle, M. D., Roe, D., Greenblatt, Y. V., & Houtkooper, L. K. (2014). TACH SAVVY: Mobile Technologies for Promoting Health and Physical Activity.. ACSM's Health & Fitness Journal, 18(4), 8-15.
• Laddu, D. R., Farr, J. N., Lee, V. R., Blew, R. M., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2014). Muscle density predicts changes in bone density and strength: a prospective pQCT study in girls.. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions, 14(2), 195-204.
• Taber, D. R., Charneco, E. Y., Dowda, M., Phillips, J. A., & Going, S. B. (2014). Participation in Vigorous Sports, Not Moderate Sports, Is Positively Associated With Cardiorespiratory Fitness Among Adolescent Girls. Phys Act Health, 11(3), 596-603.
• Vassallo, D. M., Laudermilk, M. J., Thomson, C. A., Ricketts, J. R., & Going, S. B. (2014). Relationships of dairy and non-dairy calcium with adiposity in adolescent girls. The Digest, 49(1), 1-7.
• Antonio, L., da, F., Wahrlich, V., Teixeira, M., & Going, S. B. (2013). Body fat percentage and body mass index in a probability sample of an adult urban population in Brazil. Cadernos de Saude Publica, 29(1), 73-81.
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  PMID: 23370026;Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to measure body composition in a probability sample of adults (≥ 20 years) living in Niterói, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and to assess the adequacy of the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended body mass index (BMI) cut-offs values for identifying obesity in this population. Anthropometric measures and percentage body fat (%BF) assessments were taken with 550 fasted individuals (352 women). Obesity was classified according to the WHO recommended BMI cut-off values. %BF predictive equations were developed based on the inverse of BMI. BMI and %BF mean values (standard error) were: 25.3kg/m2 (0.3) and 38% (0.4) for women and 25.1kg/m2 (0.3) and 22.1% (0.6) for men. The predicted %BF values (regression of %BF on the inverse of BMI) for each BMI cut-offs of 18.5, 25 and 30kg/m2 were: 26.3%, 38.6% and 44.5% for women and 5.6%, 23.2% and 31.5% for men, respectively. The BMI values for the %BF-estimated obesity cut-off values were 20.5 for men and 25.7kg/m2 for women. Based on the BMI-%BF relationship, the BMI cut-off values recommended by the WHO are not adequate in identifying obesity in adults from this population.
• Blew, R. M., Going, S., Lee, V. R., Farr, J. N., & Schiferl, D. J. (2013). Standardizing Evaluation of pQCT Image Quality in the Presence of Subject Movement: Qualitative Versus Quantitative Assessment. Calcified tissue international.
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  Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) is an essential tool for assessing bone parameters of the limbs, but subject movement and its impact on image quality remains a challenge to manage. The current approach to determine image viability is by visual inspection, but pQCT lacks a quantitative evaluation. Therefore, the aims of this study were to (1) examine the reliability of a qualitative visual inspection scale and (2) establish a quantitative motion assessment methodology. Scans were performed on 506 healthy girls (9-13 years) at diaphyseal regions of the femur and tibia. Scans were rated for movement independently by three technicians using a linear, nominal scale. Quantitatively, a ratio of movement to limb size (%Move) provided a measure of movement artifact. A repeat-scan subsample (n = 46) was examined to determine %Move's impact on bone parameters. Agreement between measurers was strong (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.732 for tibia, 0.812 for femur), but greater variability was observed in scans rated 3 or 4, the delineation between repeat and no repeat. The quantitative approach found ≥95 % of subjects had %Move 25 % grouping. A pQCT visual inspection scale can be a reliable metric of image quality, but technicians may periodically mischaracterize subject motion. The presented quantitative methodology yields more consistent movement assessment and could unify procedure across laboratories. Data suggest a delineation of 25 % movement for determining whether a diaphyseal scan is viable or requires repeat.
• Chomistek, A. K., Manson, J. E., Stefanick, M. L., Bing, L. u., Sands-Lincoln, M., Going, S. B., Garcia, L., Allison, M. A., Sims, S. T., Lamonte, M. J., Johnson, K. C., & Eaton, C. B. (2013). Relationship of sedentary behavior and physical activity to incident cardiovascular disease: Results from the women's health initiative. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 61(23), 2346-2354.
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  PMID: 23583242;PMCID: PMC3676694;Abstract: Objectives The aim of this study was to examine the independent and joint associations of sitting time and physical activity with risk of incident cardiovascular disease (CVD). Background Sedentary behavior is recognized as a distinct construct beyond lack of leisure-time physical activity, but limited data exist on the interrelationship between these 2 components of energy balance. Methods Participants in the prospective Women's Health Initiative Observational Study (n = 71,018), 50 to 79 years of age and free of CVD at baseline (1993 to 1998), provided information on sedentary behavior, defined as hours of sitting/day, and usual physical activity at baseline and during follow-up through September 2010. First CVD (coronary heart disease or stroke) events were centrally adjudicated. Results Sitting ≥10 h/day compared with ≤5 h/day was associated with increased CVD risk (hazard ratio: 1.18, 95% confidence interval: 1.09 to 1.29) in multivariable models including physical activity. Low physical activity was also associated with higher CVD risk (p for trend < 0.001). When women were cross-classified by sitting time and physical activity (p for interaction = 0.94), CVD risk was highest in inactive women (≤1.7 metabolic equivalent task-h/week) who also reported ≥10 h/day of sitting. Results were similar for coronary heart disease and stroke when examined separately. Associations between prolonged sitting and risk of CVD were stronger in overweight versus normal weight women and women 70 years of age and older compared with younger women. Conclusions Prolonged sitting time was associated with increased CVD risk, independent of leisure-time physical activity, in postmenopausal women without a history of CVD. A combination of low physical activity and prolonged sitting augments CVD risk. © 2013 by the American College of Cardiology Foundation.
• Chomistek, A. K., Manson, J. E., Stefanick, M. L., Lu, B., Sands-Lincoln, M., Going, S. B., Garcia, L., Allison, M. A., Sims, S. T., LaMonte, M. J., Johnson, K. C., & Eaton, C. B. (2013). Relationship of sedentary behavior and physical activity to incident cardiovascular disease: results from the Women's Health Initiative. Journal of American College of Cardiology, 61(23), 2346-54.
• Farr, J. N., Laddu, D. R., Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., & Going, S. B. (2013). Effects of physical activity and muscle quality on bone development in girls. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 45(12), 2332-2340.
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  PMID: 23698240;PMCID: PMC3833884;Abstract: INTRODUCTION: Poor muscle quality and sedentary behavior are risk factors for metabolic dysfunction in children and adolescents. However, because longitudinal data are scarce, relatively little is known about how changes in muscle quality and physical activity influence bone development. PURPOSE: In a 2-yr longitudinal study, we examined the effects of physical activity and changes in muscle quality on bone parameters in young girls. METHODS: The sample included 248 healthy girls age 9-12 yr at baseline. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography was used to measure calf and thigh muscle density, an indicator of skeletal muscle fat content or muscle quality, as well as bone parameters at diaphyseal and metaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia. Physical activity was assessed using a validated questionnaire specific for youth. RESULTS: After controlling for covariates in multiple regression models, increased calf muscle density was independently associated with greater gains in cortical (β = 0.13, P < 0.01) and trabecular (β = 0.25, P < 0.001) volumetric bone mineral density and the bone strength index (β = 0.25, P < 0.001) of the tibia. Importantly, these relationships were generalized, as similar changes were present at the femur. Associations between physical activity and changes in bone parameters were weaker than those observed for muscle density. Nevertheless, physical activity was significantly (all P < 0.05) associated with greater gains in trabecular volumetric bone mineral density and the bone strength index of the distal femur. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that poor muscle quality may put girls at risk for suboptimal bone development. Physical activity is associated with more optimal gains in weight-bearing bone density and strength in girls, but to a lesser extent than changes in muscle quality. Copyright © 2013 by the American College of Sports Medicine.
• Going, S., Hongu, N., Orr, B. J., Roe, D. J., Reed, R. G., & Going, S. B. (2013). Global Positioning System (GPS) Watches for Estimating Energy Expenditure. Journal of strength and conditioning research / National Strength & Conditioning Association.
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  ABSTRACT:: Global positioning system (GPS) watches have been introduced commercially, converting frequent measurements of time, location, speed (pace), and elevation into energy expenditure (EE) estimates. The purpose of this study was to compare EE estimates of 4 different GPS watches (Forerunner, Suunto, Polar, Adeo) at various walking speeds, to EE estimate from a triaxial accelerometer (RT3), which was used as a reference measure in this study. Sixteen healthy young adults completed the study. Participants wore 4 different GPS watches and an RT3 accelerometer, and walked 6 minute intervals on an outdoor track at 3 speeds (3, 5 and 7 km/hr). EE estimates from each GPS watch were compared to EE estimates from RT3 accelerometer using correlation coefficients and multiple linear regression analysis. The GPS watches demonstrated lower reliability (intra-class correlation coefficient) across trials when compared with the RT3, particularly at the higher speed, 7km/hr. Three GPS watches (Forerunner, Polar, and Suunto) significantly, and consistently, underestimated EE compared to the reference EE given by the RT3 accelerometer (average mean difference: Garmin, -50.5%, Polar, -41.7%, and Suunto, -41.7%, all p < 0.001). Results suggested that caution should be exercised when using commercial GPS watches to estimate EE in athletes during field-based testing and training.
• Going, S., Laddu, D. R., Farr, J. N., Laudermilk, M. J., Lee, V. R., Blew, R. M., Stump, C., Houtkooper, L., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2013). Longitudinal relationships between whole body and central adiposity on weight-bearing bone geometry, density, and bone strength: a pQCT study in young girls. Archives of osteoporosis, 8(1-2).
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  Longitudinal relationships between adiposity (total body and central) and bone development were assessed in young girls. Total body and android fat masses were positively associated with bone strength and density parameters of the femur and tibia. These results suggest adiposity may have site-specific stimulating effects on the developing bone.
• Hingle, M. D., Navarro, L., Rezaimalek, A., & Going, S. B. (2013). The use of technology to promote nutrition and physical activity behavior change in youth: A review. The Digest, 48(2), 1-28.
• Hingle, M., Going, S., Orr, B., Hongu, N., Merchant, N., Nichter, M., Roe, D., Bordon, L., Astroth, K., & Marsh, S. (2013). Stealth Health: Youth Innovation, Mobile Technology, Online Social Networking, and Informal Learning to Promote Physical Activity. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 45(4), S83-S84.
• Laddu, D. R., Farr, J. N., Laudermilk, M. J., Lee, V. R., Blew, R. M., Stump, C., Houtkooper, L., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2013). Longitudinal relationships between whole body and central adiposity on weight-bearing bone geometry, density, and bone strength: A pQCT study in young girls. Archives of Osteoporosis, 8(1-2).
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  PMID: 24113839;Abstract: Longitudinal relationships between adiposity (total body and central) and bone development were assessed in young girls. Total body and android fat masses were positively associated with bone strength and density parameters of the femur and tibia. These results suggest adiposity may have site-specific stimulating effects on the developing bone. Introduction: Childhood obesity may impair bone development, but the relationships between adiposity and bone remain unclear. Failure to account for fat pattern may explain the conflicting results. Purpose: Longitudinal associations of total body fat mass (TBFM) and android fat mass (AFM) with 2-year changes in weight-bearing bone parameters were examined in 260 girls aged 8-13 years at baseline. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography was used to measure bone strength index (BSI, square milligrams per quartic millimeter), strength-strain index (SSI, cubic millimeters), and volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD, milligrams per cubic centimeter) at distal metaphyseal and diaphyseal regions of the femur and tibia. TBFM and AFM were assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Results: Baseline TBFM and AFM were positively associated with the change in femur BSI (r = 0.20, r = 0.17, respectively) and femur trabecular vBMD (r = 0.19, r = 0.19, respectively). Similarly, positive associations were found between TBFM and change in tibia BSI and SSI (r = 0.16, r = 0.15, respectively), and femur total and trabecular vBMD (r = 0.12, r = 0.14, respectively). Analysis of covariance showed that girls in the middle thirds of AFM had significantly lower femur trabecular vBMD and significantly higher tibia cortical vBMD than girls in the highest thirds of AFM. All results were significant at p < 0.05. Conclusions: Whereas baseline levels of TBFM and AFM are positive predictors of bone strength and density at the femur and tibia, higher levels of AFM above a certain level may impair cortical vBMD growth at weight-bearing sites. Future studies in obese children will be needed to test this possibility. NIH/NICHD #HD-050775. © 2013 International Osteoporosis Foundation and National Osteoporosis Foundation.
• Lee, V. R., Blew, R. M., Farr, J. N., Thomas, R., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2013). Estimation of whole body fat from appendicular soft tissue from peripheral quantitative computed tomography in adolescent girls. International Journal of Body Composition Research, 11(1), 1-8.
• Lohman, T. G., Hingle, M., & Going, S. B. (2013). Body composition in children.. Pediatric exercise science, 25(4), 573-90. doi:10.1123/pes.25.4.573
• Lohman, T., Hingle, M., & Going, S. B. (2013). Assessment of Body Composition in Children in 1989 (25 Years Ago). Pediatric Exercise Science, 25(4), 573-590.
• Siwik, V., Kutob, R., Ritenbaugh, C., Cruz, L., Senf, J., Aickin, M., Going, S., & Shatte, A. (2013). Intervention in overweight children improves body mass index (BMI) and physical activity. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, 26(2), 126-137.
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  PMID: 23471926;Abstract: Background: Childhood obesity is a growing epidemic in family medicine with few clinical treatment options. We implemented and evaluated a group office-visit intervention by family physicians for overweight children and their parents, emphasizing nutrition and physical activity within a resiliency psychosocial model. Methods: The intervention lasted for 3 months, with half of the children crossing over to intervention after 6 months in the study. Participants included 35 children who met eligibility criteria of being in third through fifth grades and having a body mass index (BMI) above the 85th percentile. The 3-month, 12-session intervention, "Choices," included topics on nutrition, physical activity, and resiliency. The sessions were developed for delivery by a family physician and a nutritionist who received training in positive psychology and resilience skills. Main outcome measures were BMI z scores for age and sex and z scores for weight by age and sex, as well as qualitative interviews to understand individual and family processes. Results: The intervention resulted in a significant effect on one primary outcome, BMI z score (- 0.138 per 9 months [P = .017]) and a trend toward significance on the weight for age z score (- 0.87 per 9 months [P = .09]). The net shift of activity from the low metabolic equivalents (METs) to the high METs had an intervention effect of 2.84 METs (P = .037). Families reported lasting changes in behaviors and attitudes. Discussion: The innovative approach used in this study demonstrated modest efficacy in reducing BMI z score, changing physical activity levels, and possibly shifting family dynamics.
• Taber, D. R., Pratt, C., Charneco, E. Y., Dowda, M., Phillips, J. A., & Going, S. B. (2013). Participation in Vigorous Sports, Not Moderate Sports, is Positively Associated With Cardiorespiratory Fitness Among Adolescent Girls. Journal of Physical Activity & Health.
• Yousef, F. M., Jacobs, E. T., Kang, P. T., Hakim, I. A., Going, S., Yousef, J. M., Al-Raddadi, R. M., Kumosani, T. A., & Thomson, C. A. (2013). Vitamin D status and breast cancer in Saudi Arabian women: case-control study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 98(1), 105-10.
• Dow, C. A., Going, S. B., Chow, H. S., Patil, B. S., & Thomson, C. A. (2012). The effects of daily consumption of grapefruit on body weight, lipids, and blood pressure in healthy, overweight adults. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 61(7), 1026-1035.
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  PMID: 22304836;Abstract: Folklore has suggested that consuming grapefruit may promote weight control. Sparse data exist to support this hypothesis, although there is some evidence of health promotion effects with regard to blood pressure control and modulation of circulating lipids. The aim of this randomized controlled trial was to prospectively evaluate the role of grapefruit in reducing body weight and blood pressure and in promoting improvements in the lipid profile in overweight adults (N = 74). Following a 3-week washout diet low in bioactive-rich fruits and vegetables, participants were randomized to either the control diet (n = 32) or daily grapefruit (n = 42) in the amount of one half of a fresh Rio-Red grapefruit with each meal (3× daily) for 6 weeks. No differences between group in weight, blood pressure, or lipids were demonstrated. Grapefruit consumption was associated with modest weight loss (-0.61 ± 2.23 kg, P =.097), a significant reduction in waist circumference (-2.45 ± 0.60 cm, P =.0002), and a significant reduction in systolic blood pressure (-3.21 ± 10.13 mm Hg, P =.03) compared with baseline values. Improvements were observed in circulating lipids of those consuming grapefruit, with total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein significantly decreasing by -11.7 mg/dL (P =.002) and -18.7 mg/dL (P
• Dow, C., Thomson, C., Going, S., Chow, H., & Patil, B. (2012). The effects of daily consumption of grapefruit on body weight, lipids, and blood pressure in healthy, overweight adults. Metabolism, 61(7), 1026-35.
• Farr, J. N., D., M., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2012). Lower physical activity is associated with skeletal muscle fat content in girls. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 44(7), 1375-1381.
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  PMID: 22217562;PMCID: PMC3819115;Abstract: Fat contained within skeletal muscle is strongly associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome. Physical inactivity may be a risk factor for greater fat infiltration within skeletal muscle during growth. Purpose: We sought to examine the relationship between physical activity and skeletal muscle fat content of the calf and thigh in girls. Methods: Data from 464 girls, age 8-13 yr, were used to examine the relationship between physical activity and skeletal muscle fat content of the calf and thigh. Calf and thigh muscle density (mg•cm), an index of skeletal muscle fat content, was assessed at the 66% tibia and 20% femur sites relative to the respective distal growth plates of the nondominant limb using peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Physical activity level was classified by past-year physical activity questionnaire score. Results: Muscle densities of the calf and thigh were inversely correlated with percent total body fat (r =-0.37 and-0.48, P values < 0.001) and total body fat mass (r =-0.33 and-0.40, P values < 0.001). Multiple linear regression with physical activity, ethnicity, maturity offset, and muscle cross-sectional area as independent variables showed that physical activity was independently associated with muscle densities of the calf (β = 0.14, P = 0.002) and thigh (β = 0.15, P < 0.001). Thus, lower physical activity was associated with higher skeletal muscle fat content. Conclusions: Our results suggest that a lower level of physical activity may lead to excess skeletal muscle fat content of the calf and thigh in girls. © 2012 by the American College of Sports Medicine.
• Farr, J., Van, L. M., Lohman, T., & Going, S. (2012). Lower physical activity is associated with skeletal muscle fat content in girls. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 44(7), 1375-81.
• Going, S., Farr, J. N., Van Loan, M. D., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2012). Lower physical activity is associated with skeletal muscle fat content in girls. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 44(7).
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  Fat contained within skeletal muscle is strongly associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome. Physical inactivity may be a risk factor for greater fat infiltration within skeletal muscle during growth.
• Laddu, D. R., Lee, V. R., Blew, R. M., Sato, T., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. (2012). Predicting visceral adipose tissue by MRI using DXA and anthropometry in adolescents and young adults. IJBCR, 10(4), 93-100.
• Laudermilk, M. J., Manore, M. M., Thomson, C. A., Houtkooper, L. B., Farr, J. N., & Going, S. B. (2012). Vitamin C and zinc intakes are related to bone macroarchitectural structure and strength in prepubescent girls. Calcified Tissue International, 91(6), 430-439.
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  PMID: 23076447;PMCID: PMC3496253;Abstract: The extent to which nutrient intake may influence bone structure and strength during maximal rates of skeletal growth remains uncertain. We examined the relationship of dietary intake of micronutrients and bone macroarchitectural structure in young girls. This cross-sectional analysis included baseline data from 363 fourth- and sixthgrade girls enrolled in the Jump-In study. Nutrient intake was assessed using the Harvard Youth/Adolescent Food Frequency Questionnaire. Volumetric BMD (vBMD), bone geometry, and strength were measured by peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Correlations and regression modeling assessed relations between usual nutrient intake and bone parameters. In fourth-grade girls, metaphyseal and diaphyseal area and circumferences as well as diaphyseal strength were associated with vitamin C intake (r = 0.15-0.19, p
• Laudermilk, M., Manore, M., Thomson, C., Houtkooper, L., Farr, J., Lohman, T., & Going, S. (2012). Vitamin C and zinc intake is related to bone macro-architectural structure and strength in prepubescent girls. Calcified Tissue Internationa, 91(6), 430-439.
• Lee, S., Young, D. R., Pratt, C. A., Jobe, J. B., Chae, S. E., McMurray, R. G., Johnson, C. C., Going, S. B., Elder, J. P., & Stevens, J. (2012). Effects of parents' employment status on changes in body mass index and percent body fat in adolescent girls. Childhood Obesity, 8(6), 526-532.
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  PMID: 23181918;PMCID: PMC3647591;Abstract: Parents' employment status is frequently cited as a possible predictor of child weight status. Despite the importance of the topic, only a few studies have been conducted. No longitudinal studies have been conducted in the United States. A cohort of 1201 girls from the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls was used. Height, weight, and percent body fat (PBF) were measured at the 6th and 8th grades. Parents' employment status (measured at 6th grade) was categorized into working full time (reference), part time, unemployed, working or staying at home, and don't know. Mixed-model regression was used to reflect the hierarchical design of our study and adjusted for age, race, parents' education level, free or reduced-price school lunch status, and living arrangement. Girls whose mothers worked part time or stayed at home had a decreased risk of excess weight gain [relative risk (RR) = 0.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.88, 1.00; RR = 0.89, 95% CI 0.79, 1.00, respectively] compared to girls whose mothers worked full time. Girls whose fathers were unemployed had a moderately increased risk of excess weight gain (RR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.00, 1.26) compared to girls whose fathers worked full time. Having an unemployed mother or part-time or stay-at-home father was not associated with excess weight gain. Parents' employment status was not associated with excess PBF gain. Our findings suggest that the availability of the mother has a greater influence on the weight of the daughter than the availability of the father. There is a need for a better understanding of how parents' employment status influences excess weight gain in adolescent girls. © 2012 by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 2012.
• Nichter, M., Orr, B. J., Roe, D. J., Orr, B. J., Nichter, M., Merchant, N., Marsh, S. E., Hongu, K., Hingle, M., Going, S. B., Borden, L., & Astroth, K. (2012). Stealth Health: Youth Innovation, Mobile Technology, Online Social Networking, and Informal Learning to Promote Physical Activity. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 45(4), S83-S84. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2013.04.224
• Osborne, D., Weaver, C., McCabe, L., McCabe, G., Novotny, R., VanLoan, M., Going, S., Matkovic, V., Boushey, C., & Saviano, D. (2012). Body size and pubertal development explain ethnic differences in structural geometry at the femur in Asian, Hispanic, and white early adolescent girls. Bone, 51(5), 888-95.
• , R., Lee, V., & Going, S. (2011). The use of vibration exercise in clinical populations. ACSM's Health & Fitness Journal, 15(6), 25-31.
• Farr, J. N., Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2011). Associations of physical activity duration, frequency, and load with volumetric BMD, geometry, and bone strength in young girls. Osteoporosis International, 22(5), 1419-1430.
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  PMID: 20694457;PMCID: PMC3152197;Abstract: More efficacious physical activity (PA) prescriptions for optimal bone development are needed. This study showed that PA duration, frequency, and load were all independently associated with bone parameters in young girls. Increased PA duration, frequency, and load are all important osteogenic stimuli that should be incorporated into future PA interventions. Introduction: This study evaluated the associations of physical activity (PA) duration, frequency, load, and their interaction (total PA score=duration×frequency×load) with volumetric bone mineral density, geometry, and indices of bone strength in young girls. Methods: Four hundred sixty-five girls (aged 8-13 years) completed a past year physical activity questionnaire (PYPAQ) which inquires about the frequency (days per week) and duration (average minutes per session) of leisure-time PA and sports. Load (peak strain score) values were assigned to each activity based on ground reaction forces. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography was used to assess bone parameters at metaphyseal and diaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia of the non-dominant leg. Results: Correlations across all skeletal sites between PA duration, frequency, load and periosteal circumference (PC), bone strength index (BSI), and strength-strain index (SSI) were significant (≤0.05), although low (0.10-0.17). A 2.7-3.7% greater PC across all skeletal sites was associated with a high compared to a low PYPAQ score. Also, a high PYPAQ score was associated with greater BSI (6.5-8.7%) at metaphyseal sites and SSI (7.5-8.1%) at diaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia. The effect of a low PYPAQ score on bone geometric parameters and strength was greater than a high PYPAQ score. Conclusions: PA duration, frequency, and load were all associated with bone geometry and strength, although their independent influences were modest and site specific. Low levels of PA may compromise bone development whereas high levels have only a small benefit over more average levels. © 2010 International Osteoporosis Foundation and National Osteoporosis Foundation.
• Farr, J. N., Funk, J. L., Chen, Z., Lisse, J. R., Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., Laudermilk, M., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2011). Skeletal muscle fat content is inversely associated with bone strength in young girls. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 26(9), 2217-2225.
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  PMID: 21544865;Abstract: Childhood obesity is an established risk factor for metabolic disease. The influence of obesity on bone development, however, remains controversial and may depend on the pattern of regional fat deposition. Therefore, we examined the associations of regional fat compartments of the calf and thigh with weight-bearing bone parameters in girls. Data from 444 girls aged 9 to 12 years from the Jump-In: Building Better Bones study were analyzed. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) was used to assess bone parameters at metaphyseal and diaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia along with subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT, mm 2) and muscle density (mg/cm 3), an index of skeletal muscle fat content. As expected, SAT was positively correlated with total-body fat mass (r=0.87-0.89, p
• Farr, J. N., Lee, V. R., Blew, R. M., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2011). Quantifying bone-relevant activity and its relation to bone strength in girls. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(3), 476-483.
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  PMID: 20631644;PMCID: PMC3152309;Abstract: Physical activity (PA) is critical for maximizing bone development during growth. However, there is no consensus on how well existing PA measurement tools predict bone strength. Purpose: The purposes of this study were to compare four methods of quantifying PA (pedometer, 3-d PA recall (3DPAR), bone-specific PA questionnaire (BPAQ), and past year PA questionnaire (PYPAQ)), in young girls and to evaluate their ability to predict indices of bone strength. Methods: A total of 329 girls aged 8-13 yr completed a pedometer assessment, the 3DPAR, the BPAQ, and a modified PYPAQ. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography was used to assess bone strength index (BSI) at metaphyseal (4% distal femur and tibia) sites and strength-strain index (SSI) at diaphyseal (femur = 20%, tibia = 66%) sites of the nondominant leg. Correlations and hierarchical multiple regression were used to assess relationships among PA measures and indices of bone strength. Results: After adjusting for maturity, correlations between PA measures and indices of bone strength were positive, although low (r = 0.01-0.20). Regression models that included covariates (maturity, body mass, leg length, and ethnicity) and PA variables showed that PYPAQ score was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with BSI and SSI at all sites and explained more variance in BSI and SSI than any other PA measure. Pedometer steps were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with metaphyseal femur and tibia BSI, and 3DPAR score was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with metaphyseal femur BSI. BPAQ score was not significantly (P > 0.05) associated with BSI or SSI at any sites. Conclusions: A modified PYPAQ that accounts for the duration, frequency, and load of PA predicted indices of bone strength better than other PA measures. © 2011 by the American College of Sports Medicine.
• Farr, J. N., Tomas, R., Chen, Z., Lisse, J., Lohman, T., & Going, S. (2011). Lower trabecular volumetric BMD at metaphyseal regions of weight-bearing bones is associated with prior fracture in young girls. J Bone Miner Res, 26, 380-387.
• Farr, J. N., Tomás, R., Chen, Z., Lisse, J. R., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2011). Lower trabecular volumetric BMD at metaphyseal regions of weight-bearing bones is associated with prior fracture in young girls. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 26(2), 380-387.
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  PMID: 20721933;PMCID: PMC3179352;Abstract: Understanding the etiology of skeletal fragility during growth is critical for the development of treatments and prevention strategies aimed at reducing the burden of childhood fractures. Thus we evaluated the relationship between prior fracture and bone parameters in young girls. Data from 465 girls aged 8 to 13 years from the Jump-In: Building Better Bones study were analyzed. Bone parameters were assessed at metaphyseal and diaphyseal sites of the nondominant femur and tibia using peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used to assess femur, tibia, lumbar spine, and total body less head bone mineral content. Binary logistic regression was used to evaluate the relationship between prior fracture and bone parameters, controlling for maturity, body mass, leg length, ethnicity, and physical activity. Associations between prior fracture and all DXA and pQCT bone parameters at diaphyseal sites were nonsignificant. In contrast, lower trabecular volumetric BMD (vBMD) at distal metaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia was significantly associated with prior fracture. After adjustment for covariates, every SD decrease in trabecular vBMD at metaphyseal sites of the distal femur and tibia was associated with 1.4 (1.1-1.9) and 1.3 (1.0-1.7) times higher fracture prevalence, respectively. Prior fracture was not associated with metaphyseal bone size (ie, periosteal circumference). In conclusion, fractures in girls are associated with lower trabecular vBMD, but not bone size, at metaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia. Lower trabecular vBMD at metaphyseal sites of long bones may be an early marker of skeletal fragility in girls. © 2011 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
• Farr, J., Funk, J., Chen, Z., Lisse, J., Blew, R., Lee, V., Laudermilk, M., Lohman, T., & Going, S. (2011). Skeletal muscle fat content is inversely associated with bone strength in young girls. Journal of Bone & Mineral Research, 26(9), 2217-2225.
• Farr, J., Lee, V., Blew, R., Lohman, T., & Going, S. (2011). Quantifying Bone-relevant Activity and its Relation to Bone Strength in Girls. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43(3), 476-483.
• Farrell, V. A., Reeves, J., Going, S. B., & Houtkooper, L. (2011). Integrating nutrition and physical activity education into elementary schools serving low-income families. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal, 15(5), 8-16.
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  Abstract: LEARNING OBJECTIVES: From this article, the reader will understand the following concepts:• Overweight and obese children are at increased risk for health problems.• There has been an increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children in the United States.• Improving nutrition and physical activity practices can help combat the rising prevalence of childhood obesity, especially in high-risk populations.• A process for developing strategies for how to incorporate sustainable, integrated nutrition and physical activity education into schools and after-school sites that serve elementary-age children from low-income families. Copyright © 2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Farrell, V., Reeves, J., Going, S., & Houtkooper, L. (2011). Integrating nutrition and physical activity education into elementary schools serving low-income families. ACSM Health and Fitness Journal, 15(5), 41502.
• Going, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Cussler, E. C., Williams, D. P., Morrison, J. A., & Horn, P. S. (2011). Percent body fat and chronic disease risk factors in U.S. children and youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 41(4 SUPPL. 2), S77-S86.
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  PMID: 21961616;Abstract: Background: The dramatic increase in pediatric obesity has renewed interest in accurate methods and screening indexes for identifying at-risk children and youth. Whether age-specific standards are needed is a factor that remains uncertain. Purpose: This study was designed to describe the age-specific fatnessrisk factor relationship in boys and girls across a wide age range. Methods: Data were from 12,279 white, black, and Mexican-American children and adolescents from the National Health and Nutritional Examination Surveys (NHANES) III (19981994) and IV (19992004). Children were grouped based on percent fat, estimated from subscapular and triceps skinfolds, and the age-specific relationships between percent fat and chronic disease risk factors (e.g., blood pressure, lipids and lipoprotein levels, glucose, insulin, and circulating C-reactive protein levels) were described in boys and girls, aged 618 years. Results: Percent fat was significantly related to risk factor levels. At higher levels of percent fat, the prevalence of adverse cardiovascular disease risk factors was higher, particularly above 20% fat in boys and above 30% fat in girls. In boys and girls, the interaction term age by percent fat was a significant predictor of risk factors, whereas the percent fat by race interaction term was nonsignificant. Conclusions: The results demonstrate a strong relationship between chronic disease risk factors and percent fat in children and youth that varies by age in boys and girls. © 2011 American Journal of Preventive Medicine.
• Going, S., Farr, J. N., Funk, J. L., Chen, Z., Lisse, J. R., Blew, R. M., Lee, V. R., Laudermilk, M., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2011). Skeletal muscle fat content is inversely associated with bone strength in young girls. Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, 26(9).
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  Childhood obesity is an established risk factor for metabolic disease. The influence of obesity on bone development, however, remains controversial and may depend on the pattern of regional fat deposition. Therefore, we examined the associations of regional fat compartments of the calf and thigh with weight-bearing bone parameters in girls. Data from 444 girls aged 9 to 12 years from the Jump-In: Building Better Bones study were analyzed. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) was used to assess bone parameters at metaphyseal and diaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia along with subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT, mm(2) ) and muscle density (mg/cm(3) ), an index of skeletal muscle fat content. As expected, SAT was positively correlated with total-body fat mass (r = 0.87-0.89, p 
• Going, S., Farr, J. N., Lee, V. R., Blew, R. M., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2011). Quantifying bone-relevant activity and its relation to bone strength in girls. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 43(3).
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  Physical activity (PA) is critical for maximizing bone development during growth. However, there is no consensus on how well existing PA measurement tools predict bone strength.
• Going, S., Farr, J. N., Tomás, R., Chen, Z., Lisse, J. R., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2011). Lower trabecular volumetric BMD at metaphyseal regions of weight-bearing bones is associated with prior fracture in young girls. Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, 26(2).
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  Understanding the etiology of skeletal fragility during growth is critical for the development of treatments and prevention strategies aimed at reducing the burden of childhood fractures. Thus we evaluated the relationship between prior fracture and bone parameters in young girls. Data from 465 girls aged 8 to 13 years from the Jump-In: Building Better Bones study were analyzed. Bone parameters were assessed at metaphyseal and diaphyseal sites of the nondominant femur and tibia using peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used to assess femur, tibia, lumbar spine, and total body less head bone mineral content. Binary logistic regression was used to evaluate the relationship between prior fracture and bone parameters, controlling for maturity, body mass, leg length, ethnicity, and physical activity. Associations between prior fracture and all DXA and pQCT bone parameters at diaphyseal sites were nonsignificant. In contrast, lower trabecular volumetric BMD (vBMD) at distal metaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia was significantly associated with prior fracture. After adjustment for covariates, every SD decrease in trabecular vBMD at metaphyseal sites of the distal femur and tibia was associated with 1.4 (1.1-1.9) and 1.3 (1.0-1.7) times higher fracture prevalence, respectively. Prior fracture was not associated with metaphyseal bone size (ie, periosteal circumference). In conclusion, fractures in girls are associated with lower trabecular vBMD, but not bone size, at metaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia. Lower trabecular vBMD at metaphyseal sites of long bones may be an early marker of skeletal fragility in girls.
• Going, S., Laddu, D., Dow, C., Hingle, M., Thomson, C., & Going, S. B. (2011). A review of evidence-based strategies to treat obesity in adults. Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 26(5).
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  Obesity, with its comorbidities, is a major public health problem. Population-based surveys estimate 2 of every 3 U.S. adults are overweight or obese. Despite billions of dollars spent annually on weight loss attempts, recidivism is high and long-term results are disappointing. In simplest terms, weight loss and maintenance depend on energy balance, and a combination of increased energy expenditure by exercise and decreased energy intake through caloric restriction is the mainstay of behavioral interventions. Many individuals successfully lose 5%-10% of body weight through behavioral approaches and thereby significantly improve health. Similar success occurs with some weight loss prescriptions, although evidence for successful weight loss with over-the-counter medications and supplements is weak. Commercial weight loss programs have helped many individuals achieve their goals, although few programs have been carefully evaluated and compared, limiting recommendations of one program over another. For the very obese, bariatric surgery is an option that leads to significant weight loss and improved health, although risks must be carefully weighed. Lifestyle changes, including regular physical activity, healthy food choices, and portion control, must be adopted, regardless of the weight loss approach, which requires ongoing support. Patients can best decide the appropriate approach working with a multidisciplinary team, including their health care provider and experts in nutrition, exercise, and behavioral intervention.
• Going, S., Lohman, T., Cussler, E., Williams, D., Morrison, J., & Horn, P. (2011). Percent body fat and chronic disease risk factors in U.S. children and youth. Am J Prev Med 41(4), Suppl 2, 41(4), S77-S86.
• Hongu, N., Hingle, M., Merchant, N., Orr, B., Going, S., Mosqueda, M., & Thomson, C. (2011). Dietary Assessment Tools Using Mobile Technology (Review Article). Topics in Clinical Nutrition (TICN), 26(4), 300-311.
• Jackson, R. D., Wright, N. C., Beck, T. J., Sherrill, D., Cauley, J. A., Lewis, C. E., Lacroix, A. Z., Leboff, M. S., Going, S., Bassford, T., & Chen, Z. (2011). Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation has limited effects on femoral geometric strength in older postmenopausal women: The Women's Health initiative. Calcified Tissue International, 88(3), 198-208.
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  PMID: 21253715;PMCID: PMC3726200;Abstract: Calcium plus vitamin D (CaD) supplementation has a modest but significant effect on slowing loss of femoral bone mass and reducing risk of hip fractures in adherent postmenopausal women. The goal of this study was to determine if CaD supplementation influences hip structural parameters that are associated with fracture risk. We studied 1,970 postmenopausal women enrolled in the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial of CaD at one of three bone mineral density (BMD) clinical centers. Hip structural analysis software measured BMD and strength parameters on DXA scans at three regions: femoral narrow neck, intertrochanter, and shaft. Random effects models were used to test the average differences in hip BMD and geometry between intervention and placebo. There was greater preservation of hip BMD at the narrow neck with CaD relative to placebo across 6 years of intervention. CaD also altered the underlying cross-sectional geometry at the narrow neck in the direction of greater strength, with small increases in cross-sectional area and section modulus and a decrease in buckling ratio with CaD relative to placebo. While trends at both the intertrochanter and shaft regions were similar to those noted at the narrow neck, no significant intervention effects were evident. There was no significant interaction of CaD and age or baseline calcium levels for hip structural properties. CaD supplementation is associated with modest beneficial effects on hip structural features at the narrow neck, which may explain some of the benefit of CaD in reducing hip fracture risk. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
• Lohman, T. G., Loan, M. D., Going, S. B., & Farr, J. N. (2011). Lower Physical Activity is Associated with Fat Infiltration within Skeletal Muscle in Young Girls: 1821. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(Suppl 1), 443. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000401221.62123.8c
• Morrow, J. J., Going, S., Welk, G., & editors, g. (2011). FITNESSGRAM Development of New Criterion-Referenced Fitness Standards for Aerobic Capacity and Body Composition. Am J Prev Supplement, 41(6), S63-S67.
• Nelson, D. A., Beck, T. J., Wu, G., Lewis, C. E., Bassford, T., Cauley, J. A., Leboff, M. S., Going, S. B., & Chen, Z. (2011). Ethnic differences in femur geometry in the women's health initiative observational study. Osteoporosis International, 22(5), 1377-1388.
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  PMID: 20737265;Abstract: Participants in the observational study of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) were studied to determine if ethnic differences in femur geometry can help to explain differences in hip fracture rates. Structural differences in femurs of African and Mexican-American women appear to be consistent with lower rates of hip fractures vs. whites. Introduction: Ethnic origin has a major influence on hip fractures, but the underlying etiology is unknown. We evaluated ethnic differences in hip fracture rates among 159,579 postmenopausal participants in the WHI then compared femur bone mineral density (BMD) and geometry among a subset with dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans of the hip and total body. Methods: The subset included 8,206 non-Hispanic whites, 1,476 African-American (AA), 704 Mexican-American (MA), and 130 Native Americans (NA). Femur geometry derived from hip DXA using hip-structure analysis (HSA) in whites was compared to minority groups after adjustment for age, height, weight, percent lean mass, neck-shaft angle and neck length, hormone use, chronic disease (e.g., diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer), bone active medications (e.g., corticosteroids, osteoporosis therapies), and clinical center. Results: Both AA and MA women suffered hip fractures at half the rate of whites while NA appeared to be similar to whites. The structural advantage among AA appears to be due to a slightly narrower femur that requires more bone tissue to achieve similar or lower section moduli (SM) vs. whites. This also underlies their higher BMD (reduces region area) and lower buckling ratios (buckling susceptibility). Both MA and NA women had similar advantages vs. whites at the intertrochanter region where cross-sectional area and SM were higher but with no differences at the neck. NA and MA had smaller bending moments vs. whites acting in a fall on the hip (not significant in small NA sample). Buckling ratios of MA did not differ from whites at any region although NA had 4% lower values at the IT region. Conclusion: Differences in the geometry at the proximal femur are consistent with the lower hip fracture rates among AA and MA women compared to whites. © 2010 International Osteoporosis Foundation and National Osteoporosis Foundation.
• Nelson, D., Beck, T., Wu, G., Lewis, C., Bassford, T., Cauley, J., Going, S., & Chen, Z. (2011). Ethnic differences in femur geometry in the Women s Health: Initiative Observational Study. Osteoporosis Int, 22(5), 1377-88.
• Silva, H., Lourenco, A., Tomas, R., Lee, V., & Going, S. (2011). Accelerometry-based study of body vibration dampening during whole-body vibration training. MeMeA 2011 - 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications, Proceedings.
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  Abstract: The purpose of our study was to characterize the vibration delivered by a whole-body vibration (WBV) exercise platform and quantify the acceleration transmissibility throughout the body during different WBV exercises. Our accelerometry-based experimental setup, includes materials and methods for assessing vibration frequencies and corresponding magnitudes both at the side-alternating vibration platform and on multiple anatomic landmarks of the subject's body. Fourteen subjects completed a sequence of four different exercises on the platform at different vibration frequencies. Results have shown that researchers/clinicians should verify the vibration characteristics of the platform before beginning its use. The information provided by the manufacturers can have limited utility when prescribing an exercise/rehabilitation program on a WBV platform. Vibration seems to be dampened while it travels the body distal to proximal, with maximal attenuation seen at the shoulder level. Different exercises seem to influence the vibration transmissibility to some extent. © 2011 IEEE.
• Tomas, R., Lee, V. R., Holt, B. L., Going, S. B., & Burns, M. A. (2011). 12-week Program Of Whole Body Vibration Exercise Did Not Improve Body Composition In Young Adults: 2953. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(Suppl 1), 841-842. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000402345.34125.cd
• Tomás, R., Lee, V., & Going, S. (2011). The use of vibration exercise in clinical populations. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal, 15(6), 25-31.
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  Abstract: LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Describe whole body vibration exercise. Understand the rationale for the use of vibration exercise. Understand current evidence in support of vibration exercise in clinical populations. Understand the basic guidelines for prescription of vibration exercise. Copyright © 2011 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Welk, G. J., Going, S. B., Morrow Jr., J. R., & Meredith, M. D. (2011). Development of new criterion-referenced fitness standards in the FITNESSGRAM ^® program: Rationale and conceptual overview. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 41(4 SUPPL. 2), S63-S67.
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  PMID: 21961614;
• Welk, G., Going, S., Morrow, J., & Meredith, M. (2011). Development of New Criterion-Referenced Fitness Standards in the FITNESSGRAM Program: Rationale and Conceptual Overview. Am J Prev Supplement, 41(6), S63-S67.
• Zhu, W., Mahar, M. T., Welk, G. J., Going, S. B., & Cureton, K. J. (2011). Approaches for development of criterion-referenced standards in health-related youth fitness tests. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 41(4 SUPPL. 2), S68-S76.
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  PMID: 21961615;
• Zhu, W., Mahar, M., Welk, G., Going, S., & Cureton, K. (2011). Approaches for Development of Criterion-Referenced Standards in Health-Related Youth Fitness Tests. Am J Prev Supplement, 41(6), S68-S76.
• Bea, J. W., Cussler, E. C., Going, S. B., Blew, R. M., Metcalfe, L. L., & Lohman, T. G. (2010). Resistance training predicts 6-yr body composition change in postmenopausal women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42(7), 1286-1295.
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  PMID: 20019638;PMCID: PMC2892016;Abstract: Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the association of exercise frequency (ExFreq) and volume (total weight lifted by military press and squats (SQ)) with change in body composition among postmenopausal women participating in a progressive resistance training study. Methods: Previously, sedentary women (n = 122, age = 56.3 ± 4.3 yr) were followed for 6 yr. At 6 yr, there were women who had been randomly assigned to resistance training at baseline (n = 65) controls that were permitted to cross over to the exercise program at 1 yr (n = 32) and 25 true controls. Exercisers and crossovers directed to perform eight core exercises for two sets of eight repetitions at 70%-80% of one-repetition maximum, three times weekly, plus progressive weight bearing, stretching, and balance. Body weight and fat were measured at baseline and annually using anthropometry and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Results: Average change in body weight and total body fat were 0.83 ± 5.39 and 0.64 ± 4.95 kg at 6 yr, respectively. In multiple linear regression, ExFreq, military press, and SQ were significantly inversely associated with change in body weight (standardized beta coefficient (SBC) =-0.22 to-0.28, P < 0.01), fat (SBC =-0.25 to-0.33, P < 0.01), and trunk fat (SBC =-0.20 to-0.31, P < 0.03) after adjusting for age, years on hormone therapy, change in lean soft tissue, baseline body composition, and baseline habitual exercise. The lowest tertile of SQ (equivalent to 2.5% attendance) demonstrated significant gain in weight, fat, and trunk fat over 6 yr (P < 0.004), whereas the highest tertile SQ (equivalent to 64% attendance) was able to maintain their weight, total, and regional fat. Conclusions: We conclude that resistance training is a viable long-term method to prevent weight gain and deleterious changes in body composition in postmenopausal women. Copyright © 2010 by the American College of Sports Medicine.
• Bea, J. W., Lohman, T. G., Cussler, E. C., Going, S. B., & Thompson, P. A. (2010). Lifestyle modifies the relationship between body composition and adrenergic receptor genetic polymorphisms, ADRB2, ADRB3 and ADRA2B: A secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial of physical activity among postmenopausal women. Behavior Genetics, 40(5), 649-659.
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  PMID: 20401689;PMCID: PMC3817010;Abstract: Genetic variations in the adrenergic receptor (ADR) have been associated with body composition in cross-sectional studies. Recent findings suggest that ADR variants may also modify body composition response to lifestyle. We assessed the role of ADR variants in body composition response to 12 months of resistance training versus control in previously sedentary postmenopausal women. Randomized trial completers were genotyped for A2B Glu9/12 by fragment length analysis, and B2 Gln27Glu and B3 Trp64Arg by TaqMan (n = 148, 54% hormone therapy users). Associations between genotypes and body composition, by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, were analyzed using univariate models. There was no main effect of individual genes on change in body composition, however, gene × exercise interactions were observed for A2B Glu9/12 and B2 Gln27Glu on change in lean soft tissue (LST, p = 0.02); exercisers on the A2B Glu9- background gained LST compared to a loss among controls over 12 months (p < 0.05), with no significant intervention effect on the A2B Glu9+ background. Similarly, there was a significant LST gain with exercise on the B2 Glu27+ background compared to loss among controls and no intervention effect on the B2 Glu27- background. A non-significant association between total body fat (TBF) and B3 Trp64Arg persisted among sedentary controls only when intervention groups were separated (%TBF gain with B3 Arg64+ carriage, p = 0.03); exercisers lost TBF regardless of genotype. In summary, effect modification by lifestyle was demonstrated on ADRA2B, B2, and B3 genetic backgrounds. Individuals with certain ADR genotypes may be more vulnerable to adverse changes in body composition with sedentary behavior, thus these candidate genes warrant further study. © 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
• Farr, J. N., Chen, Z., Lisse, J. R., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2010). Relationship of total body fat mass to weight-bearing bone volumetric density, geometry, and strength in young girls. Bone, 46(4), 977-984.
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  PMID: 20060079;PMCID: PMC2842480;Abstract: Understanding the influence of total body fat mass (TBFM) on bone during the peri-pubertal years is critical for the development of future interventions aimed at improving bone strength and reducing fracture risk. Thus, we evaluated the relationship of TBFM to volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD), geometry, and strength at metaphyseal and diaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia of young girls. Data from 396 girls aged 8-13 years from the "Jump-In: Building Better Bones" study were analyzed. Bone parameters were assessed using peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) at the 4% and 20% distal femur and 4% and 66% distal tibia of the non-dominant leg. Bone parameters at the 4% sites included trabecular vBMD, periosteal circumference, and bone strength index (BSI), while at the 20% femur and 66% tibia, parameters included cortical vBMD, periosteal circumference, and strength-strain index (SSI). Multiple linear regression analyses were used to assess associations between bone parameters and TBFM, controlling for muscle cross-sectional area (MCSA). Regression analyses were then repeated with maturity, bone length, physical activity, and ethnicity as additional covariates. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to compare bone parameters among tertiles of TBFM. In regression models with TBFM and MCSA, associations between TBFM and bone parameters at all sites were not significant. TBFM explained very little variance in all bone parameters (0.2-2.3%). In contrast, MCSA was strongly related (p
• Farr, J. N., Going, S. B., McKnight, P. E., Kasle, S., Cussler, E. C., & Cornett, M. (2010). Progressive resistance training improves overall physical activity levels in patients with early osteoarthritis of the knee: A randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy, 90(3), 356-366.
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  PMID: 20056719;PMCID: PMC2836140;Abstract: Background. Prescription of resistance training (RT) exercises is an essential aspect of management for knee osteoarthritis (OA). However, whether patients with knee OA who are randomly assigned to receive RT simply substitute RT for other modes of physical activity remains unclear. Objective. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a structured RT intervention on overall levels of moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) in patients with early-onset knee OA. The study compared patients with early-onset OA who participated in an RT program, those who participated in a self-management (SM) program, and those who participated in both RT and SM. Because participants randomly assigned to receive the RT intervention may simply switch activity modes, resulting in little net effect, we assessed total MVPA in addition to tracking changes in strength (force-generating capacity). Design and Intervention. This study was a randomized controlled trial comparing the effectiveness of SM alone, RT alone, and combined RT+SM on MVPA in patients with early OA of the knee. Setting. The study was conducted on a university campus, with patient recruitment from the local community. Participants. The participants in this study were 171 patients (74% women, 26% men) with knee OA. They had a mean age of 55.1 (SD=7.1) years, a mean body mass index of 27.6 (SD=4.2) kg/m2, and radiographic status of grade II OA (and no higher) in at least one knee, as defined by the Kellgren and Lawrence classification. They wore an accelerometer while awake (X-= 14.2 [SD=2.2] hours) for 5 to 7 contiguous days (X-=6.8 [SD=0.5] days) at baseline and at 3 and 9 months of intervention. Results. The participants engaged in MVPA a mean of 26.2 (SD=19.3) minutes per day at baseline. Both groups significantly increased their MVPA from baseline to 3 months (RT group by 18% [effect size (d)=0.26]; SM group by 22% [effect size (d)=0.25]), but only the RT group sustained those changes at 9 months (RT group maintained a 10% increase [effect size (d)=0.15]; SM group maintained a 2% increase [effect size (d)=0.03]). A significant group X time interaction for MVPA indicated that the RT group maintained higher MVPA levels than the SM group. Limitations. Lack of direct measures of energy expenditure and physical function was a limitation of the study. Conclusions. Patients with early-onset OA of the knee can engage in an RT program without sacrificing their overall MVPA levels. These results support the value of RT for management of knee OA. © 2010 American Physical Therapy Association.
• Going, S. B. (2010). Physical activity measurements: Lessons learned from the pathways study. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 16(5), 420-425.
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  PMID: 20689391;Abstract: High obesity rates in American Indian children led to Pathways, a randomized school-and community-based childhood prevention study. Seven tribes, 5 universities, the National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, and 4 elementary schools partnered in the study. Increasing physical activity (PA) was an important intervention target. The PA assessment was based on study objectives, feasibility, and tribal acceptance. A time-segmented analysis was also desired. Two methods, a new PA questionnaire and accelerometry, were developed during pilot testing. Together, the methods provided qualitative and quantitative information and showed that 3 of 4 sites were able to increase average daily PA, although overall the control versus intervention difference was not significant. The main limitation was inability to distinguish PA among individuals. Accelerometer size and some community concerns led to a protocol based on a single day of wearing time. Newer model triaxial accelerometers that are much smaller and allow sampling of multiple days of activity are recommended for future studies. Copyright © 2010 Wolters Kluwer Health.
• Going, S. B. (2010). Physical activity measurements: lessons learned from the pathways study. Journal of public health management and practice : JPHMP, 16(5).
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  High obesity rates in American Indian children led to Pathways, a randomized school- and community-based childhood prevention study. Seven tribes, 5 universities, the National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, and 4 elementary schools partnered in the study. Increasing physical activity (PA) was an important intervention target. The PA assessment was based on study objectives, feasibility, and tribal acceptance. A time-segmented analysis was also desired. Two methods, a new PA questionnaire and accelerometry, were developed during pilot testing. Together, the methods provided qualitative and quantitative information and showed that 3 of 4 sites were able to increase average daily PA, although overall the control versus intervention difference was not significant. The main limitation was inability to distinguish PA among individuals. Accelerometer size and some community concerns led to a protocol based on a single day of wearing time. Newer model triaxial accelerometers that are much smaller and allow sampling of multiple days of activity are recommended for future studies.
• Going, S., Farr, J. N., Chen, Z., Lisse, J. R., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2010). Relationship of total body fat mass to weight-bearing bone volumetric density, geometry, and strength in young girls. Bone, 46(4).
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  Understanding the influence of total body fat mass (TBFM) on bone during the peri-pubertal years is critical for the development of future interventions aimed at improving bone strength and reducing fracture risk. Thus, we evaluated the relationship of TBFM to volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD), geometry, and strength at metaphyseal and diaphyseal sites of the femur and tibia of young girls. Data from 396 girls aged 8-13 years from the "Jump-In: Building Better Bones" study were analyzed. Bone parameters were assessed using peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) at the 4% and 20% distal femur and 4% and 66% distal tibia of the non-dominant leg. Bone parameters at the 4% sites included trabecular vBMD, periosteal circumference, and bone strength index (BSI), while at the 20% femur and 66% tibia, parameters included cortical vBMD, periosteal circumference, and strength-strain index (SSI). Multiple linear regression analyses were used to assess associations between bone parameters and TBFM, controlling for muscle cross-sectional area (MCSA). Regression analyses were then repeated with maturity, bone length, physical activity, and ethnicity as additional covariates. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to compare bone parameters among tertiles of TBFM. In regression models with TBFM and MCSA, associations between TBFM and bone parameters at all sites were not significant. TBFM explained very little variance in all bone parameters (0.2-2.3%). In contrast, MCSA was strongly related (p
• Kelly, E. B., Parra-Medina, D., Pfeiffer, K. A., Dowda, M., Conway, T. L., Webber, L. S., Jobe, J. B., Going, S., & Pate, R. R. (2010). Correlates of physical activity in black, hispanic, and white middle school girls. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 7(2), 184-193.
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  PMID: 20484757;PMCID: PMC2937261;Abstract: Background: A need exists to better understand multilevel influences on physical activity among diverse samples of girls. This study examined correlates of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among adolescent girls from different racial/ethnic backgrounds. Methods: 1,180 6th grade girls (24.5% black, 15.7% Hispanic, and 59.8% white) completed a supervised self-administered questionnaire that measured hypothesized correlates of PA. MVPA data were collected for 6 days using the ActiGraph accelerometer. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to examine correlates of PA in each racial/ethnic group. Results: Hispanic girls (n = 185) engaged in 21.7 minutes of MVPA per day, black girls (n = 289) engaged in 19.5 minutes of MVPA per day, and white girls (n = 706) engaged in 22.8 minutes of MVPA per day. Perceived transportation barriers (+; P = .010) were significantly and positively related to MVPA for Hispanic girls. For black girls, Body Mass Index (BMI) (-; P = .005) and social support from friends (+; P = .006) were significant correlates of MVPA. For white girls, BMI (-; P < .001), barriers (-; P = .012), social support from friends (+; P = .010), participation in school sports (+; P = .009), and community sports (+; P = .025) were significant correlates of MVPA. Explained variance ranged from 30% to 35%. Conclusions: Correlates of MVPA varied by racial/ ethnic groups. Effective interventions in ethnically diverse populations may require culturally tailored strategies. © 2010 Human Kinetics, Inc.
• Lohman, T. G., Lee, V. R., Going, S. B., Farr, J. N., & Blew, R. M. (2010). Influence Of Physical Activity Load, Frequency, And Duration On Bone Geometry And Strength In Girls: 2661. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42, 705. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000386049.67455.40
• McKnight, P. E., Kasle, S., Going, S., Villanueva, I., Cornett, M., Farr, J., Wright, J., Streeter, C., & Zautra, A. (2010). A comparison of strength training, self-management, and the combination for early osteoarthritis of the knee. Arthritis Care and Research, 62(1), 45-53.
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  PMID: 20191490;PMCID: PMC2831227;Abstract: Objective. To assess the relative effectiveness of combining self-management and strength training for improving functional outcomes in patients with early knee osteoarthritis. Methods. We conducted a randomized intervention trial lasting 24 months at an academic medical center. Community-dwelling middle-aged adults (n = 273) ages 35-64 years with knee osteoarthritis, pain, and self-reported physical disability completed a strength training program, a self-management program, or a combined program. Outcomes included 5 physical function tests (leg press, range of motion, work capacity, balance, and stair climbing) and 2 self-reported measures of pain and disability. Results. A total of 201 participants (73.6%) completed the 2-year trial. Overall, compliance was modest for the strength training (55.8%), self-management (69.1%), and combined (59.6%) programs. The 3 groups showed a significant and large increase from pre- to posttreatment in all of the physical functioning measures, including leg press (d = 0.85), range of motion (d = 1.00), work capacity (d = 0.60), balance (d = 0.59), and stair climbing (d = 0.59). Additionally, all 3 groups showed decreased self-reported pain (d= -0.51) and disability (d= -0.55). There were no significant differences among the groups. Conclusion. Middle-aged, sedentary persons with mild early knee osteoarthritis benefited from strength training, self-management, and the combination program. These results suggest that both strength training and self-management are suitable treatments for the early onset of knee osteoarthritis in middle-aged adults. Self-management alone may offer the least burdensome treatment for early osteoarthritis. © 2010, American College of Rheumatology.
• Tomas, R., Shutt-wood, D. D., Going, S. B., & Farr, J. N. (2010). Utility of Peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography for Assessment of Regional and Total Body Fat in Girls: 995. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42, 128. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000386299.03797.68
• Trilk, J. L., Strikmiller, P. K., Sallis, J. F., Ribisl, K. M., Pfeiffer, K. A., Pate, R. R., Neumark-sztainer, D., Lytle, L. A., Going, S. B., Dowda, M., & Addy, C. L. (2010). A Cluster Analysis of Physical Activity Patterns in Middle School Girls: 2755. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42, 739. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000386143.93485.de
• Wheeler, M. D., Michaliszyn, S. F., Hepworth, J. T., Going, S. B., & Faulkner, M. S. (2010). Exercise Perceptions, Physical Fitness, And Body Composition In Adolescents With Diabetes Or Obesity: 2257. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42, 563-564. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000385394.30775.dc
• Farrell, V. A., Harris, M., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., Thomson, C. A., Weber, J. L., & Houtkooper, L. B. (2009). Comparison between Dietary Assessment Methods for Determining Associations between Nutrient Intakes and Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109(5), 899-904.
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  PMID: 19394478;Abstract: It is important to identify the role of nutrition in the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis. The goal of this study was to compare the equivalency of nutrient intakes assessed by diet records and the Arizona Food Frequency Questionnaire and the associations of these nutrients with bone mineral density (BMD). This is a secondary analysis of cross-sectional data that was analyzed from six cohorts (fall 1995 to fall 1997) of postmenopausal women (n=244; 55.7±4.6 years) participating in a 12-month, block-randomized, clinical trial. One-year dietary intakes were assessed using 8 days of diet records and the Arizona Food Frequency Questionnaire. Participants' BMD was measured at the lumbar spine (L2-L4), femur trochanter, femur neck, Ward's triangle, and total body using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Linear regression analyses (P≤0.05) were adjusted for the effects of exercise, hormone therapy use, body weight at 1 year, years post menopause, and total energy intake. Significant correlations (r=0.30 to 0.70, P≤0.05) between dietary assessment methods were found with all dietary intake variables. Iron and magnesium were consistently and significantly positively associated with BMD at all bone sites regardless of the dietary assessment method. Zinc, dietary calcium, phosphorous, potassium, total calcium, and fiber intakes were positively associated with BMD at three or more of the same bone sites regardless of the dietary assessment method. Protein, alcohol, caffeine, sodium, and vitamin E did not have any similar BMD associations. Diet records and the Arizona Food Frequency Questionnaire are acceptable dietary tools used to determine the associations of particular nutrients and BMD sites in healthy postmenopausal women. © 2009 American Dietetic Association.
• Flint-Wagner, H. G., Lisse, J., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., Guido, T., Cussler, E., Gates, D., & Yocum, D. E. (2009). Assessment of a sixteen-week training program on strength, pain, and function in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, 15(4), 165-171.
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  PMID: 19279507;Abstract: OBJECTIVE:: To assess the effects of a 16-week progressive, individualized, high-intensity strength training program on muscle strength, pain, and function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS:: Twenty-four RA patients (men, n = 5; women, n = 19) receiving infliximab participated in a randomized controlled trial. The strength training (ST) group (n = 16) participated in a supervised program 3 times per week, and the control (C) group (n = 8) continued with standard of care as overseen by their rheumatologist. Assessments were completed at baseline and at weeks 8 and 16. Strength was measured by 3 repetition maximum (3RM), isometric hand dynamometer, and isokinetic dynamometer. A 100-mm visual analogue scale was used to assess pain. Functional performance was derived from a timed 50-foot walk and the Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index. RESULTS:: The mean percent increase in strength (3RM) for the ST group from baseline to week 16 was 46.1% ± 31.6% (P < 0.01) (mean of all three 3RM exercises: hammer curl, leg press, and incline dumbbell press), with mean gains in strength up to 4 times that of baseline values reported in all strength training exercises (upper and lower body) performed during exercise sessions. On average, right-hand grip strength increased by 2.9 ± 4.0 kg in the ST group, in comparison with a loss of 1.2 ± 3.0 kg in the C group over 16 weeks. The ST group had a 53% reduction in pain, in comparison with almost no change in the C group. The ST group had a significant improvement in 50-foot walk time, with a mean reduction of-1.2 ± 1.6 seconds, in comparison with the C group (mean increase of 0.8 ± 1.0 seconds; P = 0.01) over the 16 weeks. There was a clinically important difference (predefined as mean change ±0.25) in the Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index in the ST group (-0.4 ± 0.4) but not in the C group (-0.1 ± 0.4). CONCLUSION:: High-intensity strength training in RA patients with varying levels of disease activity and joint damage had a large, significant effect on strength, and led to improvements in pain and function, with additive patient benefits beyond the effect of their infliximab use. © 2009 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Laudermilk, M., & Going, S. B. (2009). Osteoporosis and Strength Training. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 3(4), 310-319. doi:10.1177/1559827609334979
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  Osteoporosis is a major public health problem. Mechanical strain, imparted by muscle action and ground reaction forces, regulates bone size, shape, mineral mass, and density and subsequently bone s...
• Milliken, L. A., Cussler, E., Zeller, R. A., Choi, J. -., Metcalfe, L., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2009). Changes in soft tissue composition are the primary predictors of 4-year bone mineral density changes in postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis International, 20(2), 347-354.
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  PMID: 18607670;Abstract: Summary: Changes in body weight influence bone mineral density, but the role of body composition is not clear in postmenopausal women. Body weight and soft tissue composition predicted bone changes independent of calcium supplementation and exercise frequency, indicating that soft tissue composition should be measured in clinical trials. Introduction: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between changes in body weight and composition and changes in 4-year bone mineral density (BMD) after accounting for age, 4-year exercise frequency (EX), and 4-year calcium supplement intake (CA) in postmenopausal women with and without hormone therapy (HT). Methods: Postmenopausal women (aged 40-65 years) either using HT (for 1-3.9 years) or not using HT (for ≥1 year) were recruited to the study. EX and CA was monitored throughout the study and 167 women completed 4 years. BMD and soft tissue composition measurements were made using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Regression was used to predict 4-year BMD changes from EX, CA, age, baseline and 4-year changes in body weight and composition. HT users (n = 115, 55.3 ± 4.3 years) and non-users (n = 52, 57.5 ± 4.7 years) were analyzed separately. Results: The models predicting regional BMD changes that included soft tissue composition changes explained the most variation compared with those with body weight or EX and CA alone. Larger amounts of variation in BMD changes were explained in the no HT group. Conclusion: Body composition changes are important positive predictors of BMD changes independent of EX and CA supplementation, but their contribution varies according to bone site and with HT use. © 2008 International Osteoporosis Foundation and National Osteoporosis Foundation.
• Pate, R. R., Stevens, J., Webber, L. S., Dowda, M., Murray, D. M., Young, D. R., & Going, S. (2009). Age-Related Change in Physical Activity in Adolescent Girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44(3), 275-282.
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  PMID: 19237114;PMCID: PMC2702137;Abstract: Purpose: To determine the annual rate at which physical activity changes in girls during middle school using both objective and self-report measures of physical activity. Methods: Participants were sixth- and eighth-grade girls from the control schools in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (TAAG). Random cross-sectional samples initially were drawn from sixth-grade girls (n = 786) and 2 years later from eighth-grade girls (n = 1545). A cohort of 501 girls was in both the sixth- and the eighth-grade samples. The girls wore an accelerometer for 6 days and completed the 3-Day Physical Activity Recall. Data were summarized using 3.0-, 4.6-, and 6.5-metabolic equivalent cutpoints for accelerometry and self-reported physical activity. Analyses were performed using repeated-measures analysis of variance in PROC MIXED. Results: More than 40% of the girls were white, approximately 20% were African American, and 20% were Hispanic. The annual percent decrease in physical activity in the cross-sectional sample was approximately 4% (-1.76 min moderate-to-vigorous physical activity/day), using accelerometer data. The percent decrease in physical activity based on self-report data was higher, 6% to 13%, depending on the physical activity variable. Declines tended to be larger in African American girls, but the ethnic differences were not statistically significant. Conclusions: Based on comparisons of cross-sectional samples of sixth- and eighth-grade girls, objectively measured physical activity declined at a rate of 4% per year. © 2009 Society for Adolescent Medicine.
• Treuth, M. S., Baggett, C. D., Pratt, C. A., Going, S. B., Elder, J. P., Charneco, E. Y., & Webber, L. S. (2009). A longitudinal study of sedentary behavior and overweight in adolescent girls. Obesity, 17(5), 1003-1008.
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  PMID: 19165170;PMCID: PMC3739452;Abstract: The aim of this study is to examine sedentary and light activity in relation to overweight in adolescent girls. Adolescent girls were randomly recruited from 36 schools participating in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (TAAG). Assessments included age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and body composition estimated from weight, height, and triceps skinfold. Sedentary and light activity was measured for 6 days using accelerometry in 6th and in 8th grade among two randomly sampled cross-sections of girls. Sedentary activity increased from the 6th to 8th grade by 51.5 min/day. In the 8th grade, a significantly higher number of hours in sedentary activity for each of the 6-days of measurement were evident with higher tertiles of percent body fat (30-35%, 35% fat) (P 0.05), but not across all increasing tertiles of BMI (5th to 85th, 85th to 95th, and 95th percentiles). The increase in sedentary activity was observed on weekdays, but not on weekends for percent body fat tertiles. In the cohort of girls measured in both 6th and 8th grades, the mean cross-sectional coefficient estimates were significant for percent body fat, but not BMI for sedentary and light activities. Adolescent girls from the 6th to 8th grade are shifting their time from light to more sedentary activity as measured by accelerometers. In addition, the increase in sedentary activity is not associated with an adverse effect on BMI or percent body fat. The eventual impact of this shift to a more sedentary lifestyle on body composition and other outcomes needs to be evaluated further.
• Abbot, J. M., Thomson, C. A., Ranger-Moore, J., Teixeira, P. J., Lohman, T. G., Taren, D. L., Cussler, E., Going, S. B., & Houtkooper, L. B. (2008). Psychosocial and Behavioral Profile and Predictors of Self-Reported Energy Underreporting in Obese Middle-Aged Women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(1), 114-119.
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  PMID: 18155996;Abstract: Energy underreporting is a concern with dietary intake data; therefore, subject characteristics associated with underreporting energy intake should be elucidated. Baseline self-reported dietary intake and measures of diet and weight history, life status, weight-loss readiness, psychology, eating behavior, physical activity, and self-image of obese middle-aged women (mean body mass index [calculated as kg/m2]=31.0) enrolled in a lifestyle weight-loss program were evaluated. Of the 155 participating, 71 women were identified as underreporting energy intake using the Goldberg cutoff values. Comparison of means between psychosocial and behavioral measures from energy underreporters and energy accurate reporters were used to help develop logistic regression models that could predict likelihood to underreport energy intake based on baseline measures. Characteristics most predictive of energy underreporting included fewer years of education (P=0.01), less-realistic weight-loss goals (P=0.02), higher perceived exercise competence (P=0.07), more social support to exercise (P=0.04), more body-shape concern (P=0.01), and higher perception of physical condition (P=0.03). These results highlight distinct psychosocial and behavioral characteristics that, at baseline, can help identify the likelihood an overweight middle-aged woman entering a weight-loss intervention will underreport energy intake. These results can help provide a framework for screening study participants for probability of energy underreporting, based on baseline psychosocial and behavioral measures. This knowledge can help researchers target at-risk subjects and, through education and training, improve the accuracy of self-reported energy intake and, ultimately, the accuracy of energy and nutrient intake relationships with health and disease. © 2008 American Dietetic Association.
• Chen, Z., Beck, T. J., Cauley, J. A., Lewis, C. E., LaCroix, A., Bassford, T., Guanglin, W. u., Sherrill, D., & Going, S. (2008). Hormone therapy improves femur geometry among ethnically diverse postmenopausal participants in the women's health initiative hormone intervention trials. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 23(12), 1935-1945.
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  PMID: 18665788;PMCID: PMC2686920;Abstract: Loss of bone strength underlies osteoporotic fragility fractures. We hypothesized that hormone interventions significantly improve the structural geometry of proximal femur cross-sections. Study participants were from the Women's Health Initiative hormone intervention trials: either the conjugated equine estrogen (CEE) only (Nplacebo = 447, NCEE = 422) trial or the estrogen (E) plus progestin (P) (Nplacebo = 441, N E+P = 503) trial, who were 50-79 yr old at baseline and were followed up to 6 yr. BMD scans by DXA were conducted at baseline, year 1, year 3, and year 6. Femur geometry was derived from hip DXA scans using the hip structural analysis (HSA) method. Mixed effects models with the intent-to-treat analysis approach were used. There were no significant differences in treatment effects between the E-alone and the E + P trial, so the analyses were conducted with participants combined from both trials. Treatment benefits (p < 0.05) on femur geometry were observed as early as 1 yr after the intervention. From baseline to year 6, section modulus (a measure of maximum bending stress) was preserved, and buckling ratio (an index of cortical instability under compression) was reduced by hormone interventions (p < 0.05); the differences in the percent changes from baseline to year 6 between women on hormone intervention versus women on placebo were 2.3-3.6% for section modulus and -5.3% to -4.3% for buckling ratio. Hormone interventions led to favorable changes in femur geometry, which may help explain the reduced fracture risk observed in hormone interventions. © 2008 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
• Cussler, E. C., Teixeira, P. J., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Metcalfe, L. L., Blew, R. M., Ricketts, J. R., Lohman, J., Stanford, V. A., & Lohman, T. G. (2008). Maintenance of weight loss in overweight middle-aged women through the internet. Obesity, 16(5), 1052-1060.
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  PMID: 18309301;Abstract: Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare weight regain in a group of perimenopausal women (48.0 ± 4.4 years old), randomized to a 12-month weight maintenance Internet intervention or to self-directed weight maintenance after a 4-month weight loss treatment. Methods and Procedures: After a 4-month behavioral weight loss program, 135 women were randomized to either Internet or self-directed groups. The Internet group (n = 66) used a website to gain information and complete logs concerning their weight, diet, and exercise progress over a 12-month follow-up. The 69 self-directed women had no contact with study staff. All women were measured for weight and body composition, and diet intake, and were interviewed using the 7-day physical activity questionnaires at baseline, 4 months, and 16 months. Results: At the end of the 12-month follow-up, the Internet and self-directed groups had regained on average 0.4 ± 5.0 kg and 0.6 ± 4.0 kg, respectively (P = 0.5). In within-group analyses, Internet diet-log entries were correlated with follow-up weight change (r = -0.29; P < 0.05) and moderately with change in exercise energy expenditure (EEE; r = 0.44; P < 0.01). Follow-up weight change was not correlated with change in dietary intake. Discussion: While significant weight loss was maintained over follow-up by both groups of women, Internet use did not surpass self-direction in helping to sustain weight loss. Among Internet users, Internet use was related to weight change and EEE. © 2008 The Obesity Society.
• Farr, J. N., Going, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Rankin, L., Kasle, S., Cornett, M., & Cussler, E. (2008). Physical activity levels in patients with early knee osteoarthritis measured by accelerometry. Arthritis Care and Research, 59(9), 1229-1236.
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  Abstract: Objective. Physical activity (PA) is recommended for osteoarthritis (OA) management to reduce pain and improve function. The purpose of this study was to objectively assess the level and pattern of PA in male and female knee OA patients to determine adherence to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/American College of Sports Medicine and Exercise and Physical Activity Conference recommendations for PA. Methods. Early OA patients (n = 255, 76% women, mean ± SD age 54.6 ± 7.1 years, mean ± SD body mass index 27.8 ± 4.3 kg/m 2) with Kellgren/Lawrence-defined grade II (no higher) radiographic OA in at least 1 knee wore an accelerometer for 6-7 contiguous days. Light (LPA), moderate (MPA), and vigorous (VPA) PA intensities were defined as accelerometer recordings of 100-2,224, 2,225-5,950, and >5,950 counts per minute, respectively. Results. Patients wore accelerometers for a mean ± SD of 6.8 ± 0.3 days and 13.8 ± 2.2 hours/day, and spent much more time (P < 0.001) in MPA (23.6 ± 17.2 minutes/day) than VPA (0.95 ± 3.5 minutes/day). Men spent significantly (P < 0.05) more time in all PA intensities than women. Only 30% of patients achieved recommended PA levels. The proportion of men (47%) achieving the recommendation was significantly (P = 0.04) higher than women (24%). Conclusion. Knee OA patients accumulate little VPA and most (70%) do not achieve recommended levels for MPA or greater. New strategies to increase levels of PA in this population are needed. © 2008, American College of Rheumatology.
• Farr, J. N., Going, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Rankin, L., Kasle, S., Cornett, M., & Cussler, E. (2008). Physical activity levels in patients with early knee osteoarthritis measured by accelerometry.. Arthritis and rheumatism, 59(9), 1229-1236.
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  PMID: 18759320;PMCID: PMC2595140;Abstract: OBJECTIVE: Physical activity (PA) is recommended for osteoarthritis (OA) management to reduce pain and improve function. The purpose of this study was to objectively assess the level and pattern of PA in male and female knee OA patients to determine adherence to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/American College of Sports Medicine and Exercise and Physical Activity Conference recommendations for PA. METHODS: Early OA patients (n = 255, 76% women, mean +/- SD age 54.6 +/- 7.1 years, mean +/- SD body mass index 27.8 +/- 4.3 kg/m(2)) with Kellgren/Lawrence-defined grade II (no higher) radiographic OA in at least 1 knee wore an accelerometer for 6-7 contiguous days. Light (LPA), moderate (MPA), and vigorous (VPA) PA intensities were defined as accelerometer recordings of 100-2,224, 2,225-5,950, and >5,950 counts per minute, respectively. RESULTS: Patients wore accelerometers for a mean +/- SD of 6.8 +/- 0.3 days and 13.8 +/- 2.2 hours/day, and spent much more time (P < 0.001) in MPA (23.6 +/- 17.2 minutes/day) than VPA (0.95 +/- 3.5 minutes/day). Men spent significantly (P < 0.05) more time in all PA intensities than women. Only 30% of patients achieved recommended PA levels. The proportion of men (47%) achieving the recommendation was significantly (P = 0.04) higher than women (24%). CONCLUSION: Knee OA patients accumulate little VPA and most (70%) do not achieve recommended levels for MPA or greater. New strategies to increase levels of PA in this population are needed.
• Going, S., Chen, Z., Beck, T. J., Cauley, J. A., Lewis, C. E., LaCroix, A., Bassford, T., Wu, G., Sherrill, D., & Going, S. B. (2008). Hormone therapy improves femur geometry among ethnically diverse postmenopausal participants in the Women's Health Initiative hormone intervention trials. Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, 23(12).
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  Loss of bone strength underlies osteoporotic fragility fractures. We hypothesized that hormone interventions significantly improve the structural geometry of proximal femur cross-sections. Study participants were from the Women's Health Initiative hormone intervention trials: either the conjugated equine estrogen (CEE) only (N(placebo) = 447, N(CEE) = 422) trial or the estrogen (E) plus progestin (P) (N(placebo) = 441, N(E+P) = 503) trial, who were 50-79 yr old at baseline and were followed up to 6 yr. BMD scans by DXA were conducted at baseline, year 1, year 3, and year 6. Femur geometry was derived from hip DXA scans using the hip structural analysis (HSA) method. Mixed effects models with the intent-to-treat analysis approach were used. There were no significant differences in treatment effects between the E-alone and the E + P trial, so the analyses were conducted with participants combined from both trials. Treatment benefits (p < 0.05) on femur geometry were observed as early as 1 yr after the intervention. From baseline to year 6, section modulus (a measure of maximum bending stress) was preserved, and buckling ratio (an index of cortical instability under compression) was reduced by hormone interventions (p < 0.05); the differences in the percent changes from baseline to year 6 between women on hormone intervention versus women on placebo were 2.3-3.6% for section modulus and -5.3% to - 4.3% for buckling ratio. Hormone interventions led to favorable changes in femur geometry, which may help explain the reduced fracture risk observed in hormone interventions.
• Wright, L. J., Zautra, A. J., & Going, S. (2008). Adaptation to early knee osteoarthritis: The role of risk, resilience, and disease severity on pain and physical functioning. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 36(1), 70-80.
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  PMID: 18716855;PMCID: PMC2613296;Abstract: Background: Radiographic joint changes are used to diagnose osteoarthritis; however, they alone do not adequately predict who experiences symptoms. Purpose: To examine psychological risk and resilience factors in combination with an objective indicator of disease severity (knee X-rays) to determine what factors best account for pain and physical functioning in an early knee osteoarthritis (KOA) population. Methods: Structural equation modeling was used to analyze data from 275 men and women with early KOA. Results: Structural equation modeling yielded a fair to good fit of the data, suggesting that both risk and resilience were important in predicting pain and physical functioning over and above disease severity in the expected directions. Resilience's effect on pain was mediated through self-efficacy, suggesting that higher self-efficacy was linked to lower pain and better physical functioning. Conclusions: Results provide an integrative model of adjustment to early KOA and may be important to the prevention of disability in this population. © 2008 The Society of Behavioral Medicine.
• Going, S., Chen, Z., Wang, Z., Lohman, T., Heymsfield, S. B., Outwater, E., Nicholas, J. S., Bassford, T., LaCroix, A., Sherrill, D., Punyanitya, M., Wu, G., & Going, S. B. (2007). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry is a valid tool for assessing skeletal muscle mass in older women. The Journal of nutrition, 137(12).
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  Assessing skeletal muscle mass (SMM) is critical in studying and detecting sarcopenia. Direct measurements by MRI or computerized tomography are expensive or high in radiation exposure. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is promising for body composition assessments, but the validity of DXA for predicting SMM in the elderly is still under investigation. The objective of this study was to assess the relationship between DXA-derived measurements of lean soft tissue mass (LSTM) and SMM in older women. Study participants were postmenopausal women (n = 101) recruited in southern Arizona. Total and regional body composition was measured using MRI and DXA (QDR4500w). The participants' mean age was 70.7 +/- 6.4 y and their mean BMI was 27.4 +/- 5.1 kg/m2. DXA-derived LSTM was highly correlated with MRI-derived SMM for the whole body (r = 0.94; P < 0.001) and leg region (r = 0.91; P < 0.001). In multivariate models, adjusting for age and DXA-derived percent fat slightly increased the amount of variance in SMM that can be explained by the DXA-derived LSTM assessments for the leg region but not for the total body. In conclusion, although the relationships between DXA measures and MRI-derived SMM vary by region of interest, the overall prediction of SMM by DXA is excellent. We conclude that DXA is a reliable method for cross-sectional assessments of SMM in older women.
• Higgins, K. J., Reid, P. M., Going, S. B., & Howell, W. H. (2007). Validation of bioimpedance spectroscopy to assess acute changes in hydration status. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(6), 984-990.
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  PMID: 17545889;Abstract: PURPOSE: To validate bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) as a field method for measuring small, acute changes in extracellular water (ECW) during a fluid fast/rehydration manipulation. METHODS: Seventeen young adults (15 female, 2 male) participated in a 4-d fluid fast/rehydration protocol designed to induce acute changes in ECW. ECW change (ΔECW), measured by bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS-ΔECW), was compared with ΔECW, measured by bromide dilution (Br-ΔECW), and change in body weight (ΔBW). RESULTS: Regardless of hydration status, BIS-ΔECW and Br-ΔECW were similar; during dehydration, the mean difference between these two methods was 0.16 kg (P = 0.61), and during rehydration, the mean difference was 0.58 kg (P = 0.06). Assuming that ΔECW = ΔBW, ΔECW as estimated from ΔBW differed significantly from Br-ΔECW, but not from BIS-ΔECW. In addition, BIS-ΔECW correlated significantly with ΔBW (r = 0.57 and 0.65 during dehydration and rehydration, respectively). However, the magnitude of ΔECW impacted the accuracy of BIS-ΔECW because BIS measures tended to overestimate ΔECW at values between 0.0 and 1.0 kg and to underestimate changes at values above 1.0 kg. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that BIS provides an accurate estimate of ΔECW compared with bromide dilution during short-term changes in hydration. ©2007The American College of Sports Medicine.
• Houtkooper, L. B., Stanford, V. A., Metcalfe, L. L., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2007). Preventing osteoporosis the bone estrogen strength training way. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal, 11(1), 21-27.
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  Abstract: The purposes of this article are to demonstrate that (1) osteoporosis is a debilitating disease that leads to fragile bones and bone fractures, (2) osteoporosis cannot be cured but can be prevented, and (3) low bone mineral density is a characteristic of osteoporosis. The Bone Estrogen Strength Training study results will demonstrate the following: 1. Bone mineral density can be maintained or increased in postmenopausal women using a regime of adequate resistance and weight-bearing exercise training combined with adequate calcium intake in the short term (1 year) and the long term (4 years). 2. In addition to calcium, other nutrients (particularly iron) interacted with hormone replacement therapy use and influenced short-term (1 year) and long-term (4 years) bone mineral density changes in the Bone Estrogen Strength Training study participants. © 2007 American College of Sports Medicine.
• Novotny, R., Going, S., Teegarden, D., Loan, M. V., McCabe, G., McCabe, L., Daida, Y. G., & Boushey, C. J. (2007). Hispanic and asian pubertal girls have higher android/gynoid fat ratio than whites. Obesity, 15(6), 1565-1570.
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  PMID: 17557994;Abstract: Objective: To examine differences in body size, composition, and distribution of body fat among Hispanic, white, and Asian adolescents. Research Methods and Procedures: This included crosssectional data from the baseline sample of the Adequate Calcium Today trial. Participants included 180 Asian, 234 Hispanic, and 325 white girls 11.8 ± 0.05 years of age from Arizona, California, Hawaii, Indiana, Ohio, and Nevada. Anthropometric and DXA measurements (Lunar Prodigy) were standardized across sites. Tanner pubertal stage was self-selected from line drawings. Physical activity was assessed by a validated questionnaire. Comparisons between ethnic groups were examined using contrasts in the context of a general linear model. Results: Controlling for pubertal stage and study site only, Asians weighed less than Hispanics and were shorter than Hispanics and whites. Controlling for pubertal stage, height, weight, and study site, Asians had shorter leg lengths, smaller waist circumference, longer trunk lengths, more lean mass, less total fat mass, and less gynoid fat mass than Hispanics and whites; Asians had larger bitrochanteric width than whites; Asians had smaller DXA-derived android fat mass than Hispanics; and whites had smaller mean android/gynoid fat ratio than Hispanics. However, whites had a smaller android/gynoid fat ratio than both Asians and Hispanics in a model that adjusted for ethnicity, pubertal stage, bitrochanteric width, waist circumference, trunk length, log of physical activity, and study site, which explained 77% of the variation. Discussion: Ethnic differences in fat distribution are partially explained by differences in skeletal dimensions. Copyright © 2007 NAASO.
• Saksvig, B. I., Catellier, D. J., Pfeiffer, K., Schmitz, K. H., Conway, T., Going, S., Ward, D., Strikmiller, P., & Treuth, M. S. (2007). Travel by walking before and after school and physical activity among adolescent girls. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161(2), 153-158.
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  PMID: 17283300;PMCID: PMC2587404;Abstract: Objective: To examine how "travel by walking" before and after school contributes to total physical activity of adolescent girls. Design: Cross-sectional sample. Setting: Thirty-six middle schools from Arizona, Maryland, Minnesota, Louisiana, California, and South Carolina participating in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (TAAG). Participants: Seventeen hundred twenty-one sixth-grade girls consented to participate; adequate information was available for 1596 participants (93%). Main Exposure: Travel by walking before school, after school, and before and after school combined assessed from the 3-Day Physical Activity Recall. Main Outcome Measure: Mean minutes of physical activity measured by accelerometry were estimated for total physical activity (light, moderate, vigorous), moderate to vigorous activity (MVPA), and MVPA of 3 metabolic equivalents. Results: Travel by walking was reported by 14% of participants before school and 18% after school. Girls who reported travel by walking before and after school (combined) had 13.7 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 1.2-26.3) of total physical activity and 4.7 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 2.2-7.2) of MVPA than girls who did not report this activity. Before-school and after-school walkers (but not both) accumulated 2.5 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 0.10-4.9) and 2.2 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 0.24-4.2) of MVPA on an average weekday, respectively, than nonwalkers. Conclusion: Our results provide evidence that walking to and from school increases weekday minutes of total physical activity and MVPA for middle-school girls. ©2007 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.
• Wahrlich, V., Anjos, L. A., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2007). Basal metabolic rate of Brazilians living in the Southwestern United States. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61(2), 290-294.
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  Abstract: Estimation of energy requirements relies on adequate values of basal metabolic rate (BMR). Prediction equations recommended for international use have been shown to overestimate BMR in populations living in the tropics. We have previously shown the inadequacy of these equations in samples of Brazilians living in tropical and temperate regions of the country. We sought to investigate whether BMR could adequately be estimated by prediction equations in a sample of Brazilians living in a different setting: the Sonoran desert of the Southwestern USA. BMR was measured under standard conditions in 33 subjects (14 men). Mean bias (estimated-measured) varied from 404.4 to 708.6 kJday-1 in women and 566.8 to 1122.8 kJday-1 in men, representing 8.5-15 and 8.9-17.6% overestimation, respectively, using the Schofield equations. Bland and Altman analyses showed large, relevant limits of agreement. The results using the recommended equations for the American population (IOM, 2005) were only 2% different from the Schofield equations. The Harris and Benedict equations yielded higher overestimations (15.0 and 16.8% for women and men, respectively) and the Henry and Rees equations also overestimated BMR (8.5 and 8.9%) even though they were developed for populations from the tropics, although to a lesser degree. It is concluded that the equations currently recommended for international use are not appropriate for Brazilians living in the Southwestern USA.
• Weaver, C. M., McCabe, L. D., McCabe, G. P., Novotny, R., Loan, M. V., Going, S., Matkovic, V., Boushey, C., & Savaiano, D. A. (2007). Bone mineral and predictors of bone mass in white, Hispanic, and Asian early pubertal girls. Calcified Tissue International, 81(5), 352-363.
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  PMID: 17989943;Abstract: Differences in bone among racial/ethnic groups may be explained by differences in body size and shape. Previous studies have not completely explained differences among white, Asian, and Hispanic groups during growth. To determine racial/ethnic differences and predictors of bone mass in early pubertal girls, we measured bone mineral content (BMC) in white, Hispanic, and Asian sixth-grade girls across six states in the United States. We developed models for predicting BMC for the total-body, distal radius, total-hip, and lumbar spine for 748 subjects. For each of the bone sites, the corresponding area from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was a strong predictor of BMC, with correlations ranging 0.78-0.98, confirming that larger subjects have more BMC. Anthropometric measures of bone area were nearly as effective as bone area from DXA at predicting BMC. For total-body, distal radius, lumbar spine, and total-hip BMC, racial/ethnic differences were explained by differences in bone area, sexual maturity, physical activity, and dairy calcium intake. Bone size explained most of the racial/ethnic differences in BMC, although behavioral indicators were also significant predictors of BMC. © 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
• Going, S., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (2006). Body composition assessment for development of an international growth standard for preadolescent and adolescent children. Food and nutrition bulletin, 27(4 Suppl Growth Standard).
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  General considerations in assessing body composition in children and youths are described. Various methods are explored and recommendations are made for methods to be used in the International Growth Standard for Preadolescent and Adolescent Children Project. Exclusion of under- and overweight participants is recommended, and a method is proposed to assess both underweight and overweight. In addition to height and weight, we recommend waist circumference, selected skinfolds, and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as a measure of fat, lean, and bone mineral density. We also propose using both fat mass index and fat-free mass index as an improvement over body-mass index.
• Going, S., Lohman, T. G., Ring, K., Schmitz, K. H., Treuth, M. S., Loftin, M., Yang, S., Sothern, M., & Going, S. B. (2006). Associations of body size and composition with physical activity in adolescent girls. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 38(6).
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  To examine whether components of body composition (size, fat mass, and fat-free mass) were related to physical activity.
• Maurer, J., Taren, D. L., Teixeira, P. J., Thomson, C. A., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., & Houtkooper, L. B. (2006). The psychosocial and behavioral characteristics related to energy misreporting. Nutrition Reviews, 64(2), 53-66.
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  PMID: 16536182;Abstract: Energy underreporting occurs in 2% to 85% and overreporting in 1% to 39% of various populations. Efforts are needed to understand the psychosocial and behavioral characteristics associated with misreporting to help improve the accuracy of dietary selfreporting. Past research suggests that higher social desirability and greater eating restraint are key factors influencing misreporting, while a history of dieting and being overweight are more moderately associated. Eating disinhibition, body image, depression, anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation may be related to energy misreporting, but evidence is insufficient. This review will provide a detailed discussion of the published associations among psychosocial and behavioral characteristics and energy misreporting. © 2006 International Life Sciences Institute.
• Milliken, L. A., Wilhelmy, J., Martin, C. J., Finkenthal, N., Cussler, E., Metcalfe, L., Guido, T. A., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2006). Depressive symptoms and changes in body weight exert independent and site-specific effects on bone in postmenopausal women exercising for 1 year. Journals of Gerontology - Series A Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 61(5), 488-494.
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  PMID: 16720746;Abstract: Background. Lower bone mineral density (BMD) has been documented in clinically depressed populations, and depression is the second most common chronic medical condition in general medical practice. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether depressive symptoms, vitality, and body weight changes were related to 1-year BMD changes after accounting for covariates. Methods. Healthy postmenopausal women (n = 320; 40-65 years) were recruited, and 266 women completed the study. Participants were 3-10 years postmenopausal, sedentary, and either taking hormone replacement therapy (1-3.9 years) or not taking it (at least 1 year). Exclusion criteria were: current smoking status, history of fractures, low BMD, body mass index >32.9 or
• Rushovich, B. R., Voorhees, C. C., Davis, C. E., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Pfeiffer, K. A., Elder, J. P., Going, S., & Marino, V. G. (2006). The relationship between unsupervised time after school and physical activity in adolescent girls. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 3.
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  Abstract: Background: Rising obesity and declining physical activity levels are of great concern because of the associated health risks. Many children are left unsupervised after the school day ends, but little is known about the association between unsupervised time and physical activity levels. This paper seeks to determine whether adolescent girls who are without adult supervision after school are more or less active than their peers who have a caregiver at home. Methods: A random sample of girls from 36 middle schools at 6 field sites across the U.S. was selected during the fall of the 2002-2003 school year to participate in the baseline measurement activities of the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (TAAG). Information was collected using six-day objectively measured physical activity, self-reported physical activity using a three-day recall, and socioeconomic and psychosocial measures. Complete information was available for 1422 out of a total of 1596 respondents. Categorical variables were analyzed using chi square and continuous variables were analyzed by t-tests. The four categories of time alone were compared using a mixed linear model controlling for clustering effects by study center. Results: Girls who spent more time after school (≥2 hours per day, ≥2 days per week) without adult supervision were more active than those with adult supervision (p = 0.01). Girls alone for ≥2 hours after school, ≥2 days a week, on average accrue 7.55 minutes more moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day than do girls who are supervised (95% confidence interval ([C.1]). These results adjusted for ethnicity, parent's education, participation in the free/reduced lunch program, neighborhood resources, or available transportation. Unsupervised girls (n = 279) did less homework (53.1% vs. 63.3%), spent less time riding in a car or bus (48.0% vs. 56.6%), talked on the phone more (35.5% vs. 21.1%), and watched more television (59.9% vs. 52.6%) than supervised girls (n = 569). However, unsupervised girls also were more likely to be dancing (14.0% vs. 9.3%) and listening to music (20.8% vs. 12.0%) (p < 05). Conclusion: Girls in an unsupervised environment engaged in fewer structured activities and did not immediately do their homework, but they were more likely to be physically active than supervised girls. These results may have implications for parents, school, and community agencies as to how to structure activities in order to encourage teenage girls to be more physically active. © 2006 Rushovich et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
• Teixeira, P. J., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Cussler, E. C., Metcalfe, L. L., Blew, R. M., Sardinha, L. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2006). Exercise motivation, eating, and body image variables as perdictors of weight control. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38(1), 179-188.
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  PMID: 16394972;Abstract: Purpose: This study investigated changes in psychosocial variables related to exercise, eating, and body image during a weight reduction program and evaluated their association with weight loss in middle-aged overweight and obese women up to 1 yr after intervention. Methods: The 136 participants (age, 48.1 ± 4.4 yr; weight, 30.6 ± 5.6 kg-m-2) who completed the 4-month lifestyle weight reduction program (86% retention), losing -6.2 ± 4.6% (P < 0.001) of their initial weight, were followed up for 12 additional months. Of these, 82% completed 16-month assessments (weight change, -5.5 ± 7.7%, P < 0.001). Psychosocial variables were assessed by validated instruments in standardized conditions at baseline and after the intervention (4 months). Results: Compared with 4-month assessments, body weight did not change at 16 months (P > 0.09). Changes in eating restraint, disinhibition, and hunger; exercise, self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation; body shape concerns; and physical self-worth were associated with weight change at 4 months (P < 0.001, except hunger, P < 0.05). Baseline-adjusted 4-month scores in all psychosocial variables also predicted weight change from baseline to 16 months (P < 0.01), except hunger (P > 0.05). After controlling for 4-month weight change and other covariates, increases in exercise intrinsic motivation remained predictive of weight loss at 16 months (P < 0.05). Multiple linear regression showed that eating variables were significant and independent correlates of short-term weight change, whereas changes in exercise variables were stronger predictors of longer term weight outcomes. Conclusions: Results highlight the importance of cognitive processes during weight control and support the notion that initial focus on diet is associated with short-term weight loss, while change in exercise-related motivational factors, with a special emphasis on intrinsic sources of motivation (e.g., interest and enjoyment in exercise), play a more important role in longer term weight management. Copyright © 2006 by the American College of Sports Medicine.
• Wahrlich, V., Anjos, L. A., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2006). Validation of the VO2000 calorimeter for measuring resting metabolic rate. Clinical Nutrition, 25(4), 687-692.
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  PMID: 16698140;Abstract: Background & aims: Metabolic carts used in laboratory settings for the measurement of resting metabolism are cumbersome limiting their use in the field. The validity of a newly developed portable calorimeter (Medical Graphics VO2000) under resting conditions was assessed in comparison to a well-established reference system, the DELTATRAC™. Methods: Gas exchange and energy expenditure were measured for 25 min consecutively using the two devices. Values of the last 20 min were averaged and used in the analysis. The order of device for the first subject was randomly chosen and the calorimeters were alternated thereafter. Results: Among 33 subjects, acceptable measures of resting metabolism were obtained in 25 (11 men) aged 20-78 years because eight subjects (three men) either hyperventilated or did not adapt well enough to the facemask. over(V, ̇) O2, over(V, ̇) CO2, and RQ were not significantly different between devices. Small (2.8%) non-clinically relevant mean differences (-0.145±0.341 MJ day-1) were found. Results of the two devices were highly correlated (r=0.95) yielding a more accurate estimate than predictive equations. Conclusions: The VO2000 calorimeter is a valid system to measure resting metabolism but the facemask may not be suitable for some people. © 2006 Elsevier Ltd and European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism.
• Cussler, E. C., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Stanford, V. A., Blew, R. M., Flint-Wagner, H. G., Metcalfe, L. L., Choi, J., & Lohman, T. G. (2005). Exercise frequency and calcium intake predict 4-year bone changes in postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis International, 16(12), 2129-2141.
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  PMID: 16283062;Abstract: The aim of this study was to examine the association of exercise frequency and calcium intake (CI) with change in regional and total bone mineral density (BMD) in a group of postmenopausal women completing 4 years of progressive strength training. One hundred sixty-seven calcium-supplemented (800 mg/ day) sedentary women (56.1 ± 4.5 years) randomized to a progressive strength training exercise program or to control were followed for 4 years. Fifty-four percent of the women were using hormone therapy (HT) at baseline. At 1 year, controls were permitted to begin the exercise program (crossovers). The final sample included 23 controls, 55 crossovers, and 89 randomized exercisers. Exercisers were instructed to complete two sets of six to eight repetitions of exercises at 70-80% of one repetition maximum, three times weekly. BMD was measured at baseline and thereafter annually using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Four-year percentage exercise frequency (ExFreq) averaged 26.8% ± 20.1% for crossovers (including the first year at 0%), and 50.4% ± 26.7% for exercisers. Four-year total CI averaged 1,635 ± 367 mg/day and supplemental calcium intake, 711 ± 174 mg/day. In adjusted multiple linear regression models, ExFreq was positively and significantly related to changes in femur trochanter (FT) and neck (FN), lumbar spine (LS), and total body (TB) BMD. Among HT users, FT BMD increased 1.5%, and FN and LS BMD, 1.2% (p < 0.01) for each standard deviation (SD) of percentage ExFreq (29.5% or 0.9 days/week). HT non-users gained 1.9% and 2.3% BMD at FT and FN, respectively, (p < 0.05) for every SD of CI. The significant, positive, association between BMD change and ExFreq supports the long-term usefulness of strength training exercise for the prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, especially HT users. The positive relationship of CI to change in BMD among postmenopausal women not using HT has clinical implications in light of recent evidence of an increased health risk associated with HT. © International Osteoporosis Foundation and National Osteoporosis Foundation 2005.
• Maurer, J., Harris, M. M., Stanford, V. A., Lohman, T. G., Cussler, E., Going, S. B., & Houtkooper, L. B. (2005). Dietary iron positively influences bone mineral density in postmenopausal women on hormone replacement therapy. Journal of Nutrition, 135(4), 863-869.
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  PMID: 15795448;Abstract: The associations of dietary intakes of iron and calcium on change in bone mineral density (BMD) were examined over 1 y in healthy nonsmoking postmenopausal women (mean age 55.6 ± 4.6 y) stratified by hormone replacement therapy (HRT) use (HRT, n = 116; no HRT, n = 112). BMD was measured at lumbar spine L2-L4, trochanter, femur neck, Ward's triangle, and total body using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at baseline and 1 y. Mean nutrient intakes were assessed using 8-d diet records. All women received 800 mg/d of supplemental elemental calcium. Regression analyses examined the effects of iron and calcium intakes on BMD change adjusting for years past menopause, baseline BMD, weight change, exercise, and energy intake. The interaction of iron with calcium on BMD change was assessed using tertiles of iron and calcium intake and estimated marginal mean change in BMD. Iron was associated (P < 0.05) with greater positive BMD change at the trochanter and Ward's triangle in women using HRT. Calcium was associated (P < 0.05) with BMD change at the trochanter and femur neck for women not using HRT. In women using HRT in the lowest tertile of calcium intake, change in femur neck BMD increased linearly as iron intake increased. In women not using HRT, BMD increased in the women in the highest tertile of calcium intake. We conclude that HRT use appears to influence the associations of iron and calcium on change in BMD. © 2005 American Society for Nutritional Sciences.
• Teixeira, P. J., Going, S. B., Sardinha, L. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2005). A review of psychosocial pre-treatment predictors of weight control. Obesity Reviews, 6(1), 43-65.
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  PMID: 15655038;Abstract: Prompted by the large heterogeneity of individual results in obesity treatment, many studies have attempted to predict weight outcomes from information collected from participants before they start the programme. Identifying significant predictors of weight loss outcomes is central to improving treatments for obesity, as it could help professionals focus efforts on those most likely to benefit, suggest supplementary or alternative treatments for those less likely to succeed, and help in matching individuals to different treatments. To date, however, research efforts have resulted in weak predictive models with limited practical usefulness. The two primary goals of this article are to review the best individual-level psychosocial pre-treatment predictors of short- and long-term (1 year or more) weight loss and to identify research needs and propose directions for further work in this area. Results from original studies published since 1995 show that few previous weight loss attempts and an autonomous, self-motivated cognitive style are the best prospective predictors of successful weight management. In the more obese samples, higher initial body mass index (BMI) may also be correlated with larger absolute weight losses. Several variables, including binge eating, eating disinhibition and restraint, and depression/mood clearly do not predict treatment outcomes, when assessed before treatment. Importantly, for a considerable number of psychosocial constructs (e.g. eating self-efficacy, body image, self-esteem, outcome expectancies, weight-specific quality of life and several variables related to exercise), evidence is suggestive but inconsistent or too scant for an informed conclusion to be drawn. Results are discussed in the context of past and present conceptual and methodological limitations, and several future research directions are described.
• Stevens, J., Suchindran, C., Ring, K., Baggett, C. D., Jobe, J. B., Story, M., Thompson, J., Going, S. B., & Caballero, B. (2004). Physical activity as a predictor of body composition in American Indian children. Obesity Research, 12(12), 1974-1980.
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  PMID: 15687399;Abstract: Objective: To examine physical activity in second grade American Indian children as a predictor of percentage body fat 3 years later. Research Methods and Procedures: Physical activity was assessed as average vector magnitude (AVM) counts from an accelerometer in 454 second grade children as part of the Pathways study. BMI was assessed, and skinfolds and bioelectrical impedance were used to estimate fat mass, fat-free body mass, and percentage body fat in validated prediction equations. Associations were examined using mixed models regression controlling for baseline body composition. Results: In normal-weight children, higher AVM counts were significantly associated with decreases in percentage body fat. Among overweight children, higher AVM counts were significantly associated with increases in BMI, fat mass, and fat-free mass but not percentage body fat. Discussion: Higher physical activity levels in second grade were associated with lower levels of percentage body fat in fifth grade in normal-weight but not in overweight children. BMI showed no association with physical activity among normal-weight children, and increases in BMI were associated with increasing amounts of physical activity among overweight children. These findings emphasize the importance of valid body composition measures and may indicate important differences in associations between physical activity and adiposity in normal-weight as compared with overweight children. Copyright © 2004 NAASO.
• Teixeira, P. J., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Cussler, E. C., Metcalfe, L. L., Blew, R. M., Sardinha, L. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2004). Pretreatment predictors of attrition and successful weight management in women. International Journal of Obesity, 28(9), 1124-1133.
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  PMID: 15263921;Abstract: OBJECTIVE: This study analyzed baseline behavioral and psychosocial differences between successful and nonsuccessful participants in a behavioral weight management program. Success was defined by commonly used health-related criteria (5% weight loss). Noncompletion was also used as a marker of a failed attempt at weight control. SUBJECTS: A total of 158 healthy overweight and obese women (age, 48.0 ± 4.5 y; BMI, 31.0 ± 3.8 kg/m2; body fat, 44.5 ± 5.3%). INTERVENTION: Subjects participated in a 16-week lifestyle weight loss program consisting of group-based behavior therapy to improve diet and increase physical activity, and were followed for 1 y after treatment. METHODS: At baseline, all women completed a comprehensive behavioral and psychosocial battery assessing dieting/weight history, dietary intake and eating behaviors, exercise, self-efficacy, outcome evaluations, body image, and other variables considered relevant for weight management. Participants who maintained a weight loss of 5% or more at 16 months (or 10% or more of initial fat mass) were classified as successful. Nonsuccessful participants were those who dropped out and completers who had not lost weight at follow-up. RESULTS: Of all participants, 30% (n = 47) did not complete initial treatment and/or missed follow-up assessments (noncompleters). Noncompletion was independently associated with more previous weight loss attempts, poorer quality of life, more stringent weight outcome evaluations, and lower reported carbohydrate intake at baseline. In logistic regression, completion status was predicted correctly in 84% of all cases (χ2 = 45.5, P < 0.001), using baseline information only. Additional predictors of attrition were initial weight, exercise minutes, fiber intake, binge eating, psychological health, and body image. A large variation in weight loss/maintenance results was observed (range: 37.2 kg for 16-month weight change). Independent baseline predictors of success at 16 months were more moderate weight outcome evaluations, lower level of previous dieting, higher exercise self-efficacy, and smaller waist-to-hip ratio. Success status at follow-up was predicted correctly in 74% of all starting cases (χ2 = 33.6, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Psychosocial and behavioral variables (eg, dieting history, dietary intake, outcome evaluations, exercise self-efficacy, and quality of life) may be useful as pretreatment predictors of success level and/or attrition in previously overweight and mildly obese women who volunteer for behavioral weight control programs. These factors can be used in developing readiness profiles for weight management, a potentially important tool to address the issue of low success/completion rates in the current management of obesity.
• Treuth, M. S., Schmitz, K., Catellier, D. J., McMurray, R. G., Murray, D. M., Almeida, M. J., Going, S., Norman, J. E., & Pate, R. (2004). Defining accelerometer thresholds for activity intensities in adolescent girls. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36(7), 1259-1266.
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  PMID: 15235335;PMCID: PMC2423321;Abstract: Purpose: To derive a regression equation that estimates metabolic equivalent (MET) from accelerometer counts, and to define thresholds of accelerometer counts that can be used to delineate sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous activity in adolescent girls. Methods: Seventy-four healthy 8th grade girls, age 13-14 yr, were recruited from urban areas of Baltimore, MD, Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN, and Columbia, SC, to participate in the study. Accelerometer and oxygen consumption (V̇O2) data for 10 activities that varied in intensity from sedentary (e.g., TV watching) to vigorous (e.g., running) were collected. While performing these activities, the girls wore two accelerometers, a heart rate monitor and a Cosmed K4b2 portable metabolic unit for measurement of V̇O2. A random-coefficients model was used to estimate the relationship between accelerometer counts and V̇O2. Activity thresholds were defined by minimizing the false positive and false negative classifications. Results: The activities provided a wide range in V̇O2 (3-36 mL·kg -1·min-1) with a correspondingly wide range in accelerometer counts (1-3928 counts·30 s-1). The regression line for MET score versus counts was MET = 2.01 + 0.00171 (counts·30 s-1) (mixed model R2 = 0.84, SEE = 1.36). A threshold of 1500 counts·30 s-1 defined the lower end of the moderate intensity (∼4.6 METs) range of physical activity. That cutpoint distinguished between slow and brisk walking, and gave the lowest number of false positive and false negative classifications. The threshold ranges for sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity were found to be 0-50, 51-1499, 1500-2600, and >2600 counts·30 s-1, respectively. Conclusion: The developed equation and these activity thresholds can be used for prediction of MET score from accelerometer counts and participation in various intensities of physical activity in adolescent girls.
• Caballero, B., Himes, J. H., Lohman, T., Davis, S. M., Stevens, J., Evans, M., Going, S., & Pablo, J. (2003). Body composition and overweight prevalence in 1704 schoolchildren from 7 American Indian communities. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(2), 308-312.
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  PMID: 12885714;Abstract: Background: Nationwide data on obesity prevalence in American Indian communities are limited. Objective: We describe the body composition and anthropometric characteristics of schoolchildren from 7 American Indian communities enrolled in the Pathways study, a randomized field trial evaluating a program for the primary prevention of obesity. Design: A total of 1704 children in 41 schools were enrolled in the study. Basic anthropometric measurements included weight, height, and triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses. Percentage body fat was estimated from bioelectrical impedance and anthropometric variables with the use of an equation developed and validated for this population. Results: The children's mean (± SD) age was 7.6 ± 0.6 y, and their mean weight and height were 32.1 ± 8.9 kg and 129.8 ± 6.3 cm, respectively. Mean body mass index (BMI; in kg/m 2) was 18.8 ± 3.9, and mean percentage body fat was 32.6 ± 6.8%. With the use of current Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reference values, 30.5% of girls and 26.8% of boys were above the 95th percentiles for BMI-for-age, and 21% of girls and 19.6% of boys were between the 85th and 95th percentiles. Although there was a wide range in BMI across study sites and for both sexes, the percentage of children with a BMI above the 95th percentile was consistently higher than the national averages in all communities studied and in both girls and boys. Conclusions: Overweight can be documented in a substantial number of American Indian children by the time they reach elementary school. Despite differences in the prevalence of overweight observed among communities, rates are uniformly high relative to national all-race averages.
• Cussler, E. C., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Metcalfe, L. L., Flint-Wagner, H. G., Harris, R. B., & Teixeira, P. J. (2003). Weight lifted in strength training predicts bone change in postmenopausal women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(1), 10-17.
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  PMID: 12544629;Abstract: Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between weight lifted in 1 yr of progressive strength training and change in bone mineral density (BMD) in a group of calcium-replete, postmenopausal women. Methods: As part of a large clinical trial, 140 calcium-supplemented women, 44-66 yr old, were randomized to a 1-yr progressive strength-training program. Half of the women were using hormone replacement therapy. Three times weekly, subjects completed two sets of six to eight repetitions in eight core exercises at 70-80% of one repetition maximum. BMD was measured at baseline and 1 yr. Results: In multiple linear regression, the increase in femur trochanter (FT) BMD was positively related to total weight lifted (0.001 g·cm-2 for a SD of weight lifted, P
• Figueroa, A., Going, S. B., Milliken, L. A., Blew, R. M., Sharp, S., Teixeira, P. J., & Lohman, T. G. (2003). Effects of exercise training and hormone replacement therapy on lean and fat mass in postmenopausal women. Journals of Gerontology - Series A Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 58(3), 266-270.
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  PMID: 12634293;Abstract: Background. Menopause is associated with decreases in lean mass and increases in fat mass. Serum hormone levels and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) may modify the effects of exercise training on body composition in postmenopausal women. Methods. We assessed the changes in total body and regional lean soft tissue and fat mass (using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry) in 94 sedentary postmenopausal women, aged 40-65 years, after 12 months of resistance and weight-bearing aerobic exercise training. Women currently on oral HRT (n = 39) and not on HRT (n = 55) were randomized within groups to exercise and no exercise, resulting in four groups: exercise + HRT (n = 20), HRT (n = 22), exercise (n = 24), and control (n = 28). Fasting blood samples were measured for resting serum total levels of estrone, estradiol, cortisol, androstenedione, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor 1 at baseline and 12 months. Results. We found significant effects of exercise on increases in total body, arm, and leg lean soft tissue mass, and decreases in leg fat mass and percentage of body fat. There were no interaction effects of exercise and HRT on the changes in muscle strength and body composition. No significant changes in total hormone levels were found after 12 months. Conclusions. Exercise training resulted in significant beneficial changes in lean soft tissue and fat mass in early postmenopausal women. These changes in body composition were neither influenced by prolonged HRT use nor accompanied by changes in total levels of the hormones determined in this study.
• Going, S., Lohman, T., Houtkooper, L., Metcalfe, L., Flint-Wagner, H., Blew, R., Stanford, V., Cussler, E., Martin, J., Teixeira, P., Harris, M., Milliken, L., Figueroa-Galvez, A., & Weber, J. (2003). Effects of exercise on bone mineral density in calcium-replete postmenopausal women with and without hormone replacement therapy. Osteoporosis International, 14(8), 637-643.
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  PMID: 12844212;Abstract: Osteoporosis is a major public health concern. The combination of exercise, hormone replacement therapy, and calcium supplementation may have added benefits for improving bone mineral density compared to a single intervention. To test this notion, 320 healthy, non-smoking postmenopausal women, who did or did not use hormone replacement therapy (HRT), were randomized within groups to exercise or no exercise and followed for 12 months. All women received 800 mg calcium citrate supplements daily. Women who exercised performed supervised aerobic, weight-bearing and weight-lifting exercise, three times per week in community-based exercise facilities. Regional bone mineral density (BMD) was assessed by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Women who used HRT, calcium, and exercised increased femoral neck, trochanteric and lumbar spine bone mineral density by approximately 1-2%. Trochanteric BMD was also significantly increased by ∼1.0% in women who exercised and used calcium without HRT compared to a negligible change in women who used HRT and did not exercise. The results demonstrate that regional BMD can be improved with aerobic, weight-bearing activity combined with weight lifting at clinically relevant sites in postmenopausal women. The response was significant at more sites in women who used HRT, suggesting a greater benefit with hormone replacement and exercise compared to HRT alone.
• Going, S., Thompson, J., Cano, S., Stewart, D., Stone, E., Harnack, L., Hastings, C., Norman, J., & Corbin, C. (2003). The effects of the Pathways Obesity Prevention Program on physical activity in American Indian children. Preventive Medicine, 37(SUPPL. 1), S62-S69.
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  PMID: 14636810;Abstract: Background. Inadequate opportunities for physical activity at school and overall low levels of activity contribute to the high prevalence of overweight and obesity in American-Indian children. Methods. A school-based physical activity intervention was implemented which emphasized increasing the frequency and quality of physical education (PE) classes and activity breaks. Changes in physical activity were assessed using the TriTrac-R3D accelerometer in a subsample of 580 of the students (34%) randomly selected from the Pathways study cohort. Baseline measures were completed with children in second grade. Follow-up measurements were obtained in the spring of the fifth grade. Results. Intervention schools were more active (+6.3 to +27.2%) than control schools at three of the four sites, although the overall difference between intervention and control schools (∼10%) was not significant (P > 0.05). Boys were more active than girls by 17 to 21% (P ≤ .01) at both baseline and follow-up. Conclusions. Despite the trend for greater physical activity at three of four study sites, and an overall difference of ∼10% between intervention and control schools, high variability in accelerometer AVM and the opportunity to measure physical activity on only 1 day resulted in a the failure to detect the difference as significant. © 2003 American Health Foundation and Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
• Greaves, K. A., Going, S. B., Fernandez, M. L., Milliken, L. A., Lohman, T. G., Bassford, T., & McNamara, D. J. (2003). Cholesteryl ester transfer protein and lecithin: Cholesterol acyltransferase activities in hispanic and anglo postmenopausal women: Associations with total and regional body fat. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 52(3), 282-289.
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  PMID: 12647264;Abstract: Reverse cholesterol transport is one process by which high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol has been hypothesized to play a role in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. This study was designed to examine cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) and lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) activities, 2 modulators of reverse cholesterol transport, in Hispanic and Anglo postmenopausal women. The associations between plasma CETP and LCAT activities and body composition were also examined. Of the 199 subjects, 33% were of Hispanic origin and 47% were undergoing hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Body composition was measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and anthropometry. Plasma CETP activity was higher in Hispanic compared to Anglo women, although the difference was eliminated when data were adjusted for abdominal fat. Hispanic women had lower plasma HDL cholesterol concentrations, higher total cholesterol:HDL cholesterol ratios and triglyceride concentrations, and greater susceptibility of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles to oxidation. Hispanic women also had a significantly greater relative deposition of body fat on the trunk and intra-abdominally than did Anglo women, even after adjusting for total body fat. There were no significant ethnic differences in LCAT activity. Plasma CETP and LCAT activities were negatively correlated with HDL cholesterol and positively correlated with total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides, as well as total and regional body composition variables. In conclusion, results suggest a greater risk for coronary heart disease in, Hispanic women compared to Anglo women. Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
• Harris, M. M., Houtkooper, L. B., Stanford, V. A., Parkhill, C., Weber, J. L., Flint-Wagner, H., Weiss, L., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2003). Dietary Iron Is Associated with Bone Mineral Density in Healthy Postmenopausal Women. Journal of Nutrition, 133(11), 3598-3602.
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  PMID: 14608080;Abstract: Healthy nonsmoking postmenopausal women (n = 242; ages 40-66 y) were included in the Bone, Estrogen, and Strength Training (BEST) Study. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured at five sites (lumbar spine L2-L4, trochanter, femur neck, Ward's triangle and total body) using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Mean nutrient intakes were assessed using a 3-d diet record. Regression models were calculated using each BMD site as the dependent variable and iron as the independent variable. Covariates included in the models were years past menopause, fat-free mass, fat mass, use of hormone replacement therapy, total energy intake and dietary intake of protein and calcium. Using linear models, iron was associated with greater BMD at all sites (P ≤ 0.01), even after adjusting for protein and/or calcium. Increasing levels of iron intake (>20 mg) were associated with greater BMD at several bone sites among women with a mean calcium intake of 800-1200 mg/d. Elevated iron intake was not associated with greater BMD among women with higher (>1200 mg/d) or lower calcium intakes (
• Lohman, T., Thompson, J., Going, S., Himes, J. H., Caballero, B., Norman, J., Cano, S., & Ring, K. (2003). Indices of changes in adiposity in American Indian children. Preventive Medicine, 37(SUPPL. 1), S91-S96.
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  PMID: 14636813;Abstract: Background. Pathways, a randomized trial, evaluated the effectiveness of a school-based obesity prevention program on body composition changes in American Indian children. Several body composition methods were compared in intervention and control schools for assessing body composition changes. Methods. Body composition methods, including skinfolds, bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA), body mass index (BMI), and using a combination of body composition methods were selected to assess 3-year changes in PBF in 705 children within 21 intervention schools and 663 children within 20 control schools. The study equation using skinfolds, BIA, and BMI was developed on a previous sample of American Indian children using deuterium oxide dilution as the criterion method. Results. Body fat changes among methods for the intervention sample ranged from 5.4% (BMI method) to 7.1% (combination of methods) and for the control sample, from 5.8% (BMI method) to 7.3% (combination of methods). The study equation estimates were significantly higher than the other methods and the BMI equation estimates were significantly lower than the other methods except by BIA. The BIA equation showed a significantly larger standard deviation of the difference over the 3-year intervention than each of the other methods indicating less reliability for detecting body composition changes. Conclusions. Within the Pathways large scale intervention trial with American Indian children, we found comparable yet significantly different mean PBF changes among methods. However, BIA was not as reliable as skinfolds and the combination of BIA, skinfolds, and body weight in assessing PBF changes. © 2003 American Health Foundation and Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.
• Milliken, L. A., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Flint-Wagner, H., Figueroa, A., Metcalfe, L. L., Blew, R. M., Sharp, S. C., & Lohman, T. G. (2003). Effects of exercise training on bone remodeling, insulin-like growth factors, and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with and without hormone replacement therapy. Calcified Tissue International, 72(4), 478-484.
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  PMID: 12574871;Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 12 months of weight bearing and resistance exercise on bone mineral density (BMD) and bone remodeling (bone formation and bone resorption) in 2 groups of postmenopausal women either with or without hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Secondary aims were to characterize the changes in insulin-like growth factors-1 and -2 (IGF-1 and -2) and IGF binding protein 3 (IGFBP3) in response to exercise training. Women who were 3-10 years postmenopausal (aged 40-65 years) were included in the study. Women in the HRT and no HRT groups were randomized into the exercise intervention, resulting in four groups: (1) women not taking HRT, not exercising; (2) those taking HRT, not exercising; (3) those exercising, not taking HRT; and (4) women exercising, taking HRT. The number of subjects per group after 1 year was 27, 21, 25, and 17, respectively. HRT increased BMD at most sites whereas the combination of exercise and HRT produced increases in BMD greater than either treatment alone. Exercise training alone resulted in modest site-specific increases in BMD. Bone remodeling was suppressed in the groups taking HRT regardless of exercise status. The bone remodeling response to exercise training in women not taking HRT was not significantly different from those not exercising. However, the direction of change suggests an elevation in bone remodeling in response to exercise training, a phenomenon usually associated with bone loss. No training-induced differences in IGF-1, IGF-2, IGF-1:IGF-2 (IGF-1:IGF-2), and IGFBP3 were detected.
• Teixeira, P. J., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Metcalfe, L. L., Blew, R. M., Flint-Wagner, H. G., Cussler, E. C., Sardinha, L. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2003). Resistance training in postmenopausal women with and without hormone therapy. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(4), 555-562.
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  PMID: 12673136;Abstract: Purpose: The main purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of a 1-yr resistance-training program on body composition and muscle strength in postmenopausal women, and to describe the impact of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on body composition changes, with and without exercise. Secondarily, we wanted to study dose-response relationships between measures of program compliance and changes in primary outcomes. Methods: Subjects were postmenopausal women (40 - 66 yr) randomly assigned to an exercise (EX) group (N = 117) and a nonexercise group (N = 116). The EX group participated in a 1 yr trainer-supervised resistance-training program, 60-75 min.d-1, 3 d.wk-1. Lean soft tissue (LST) and fat tissue (FT) changes were measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and strength by one-repetition maximum testing. Results: Significant (P < 0.001) gains in LST were observed for women who exercised, regardless of HRT status, whereas women who did not exercise lost LST (P < 0.05) if they were not taking HRT, and gained LST (P = 0.08) if they were on HRT. The only significant FT losses were observed for women who exercised while on HRT (P < 0.05). Strength increases were observed at all sites (P < 0.001). Total weight lifted by subjects in their training sessions was a significant predictor of changes in LST (P < 0.001) and strength (P < 0.01). Conclusions: Resistance and weight-bearing exercise significantly changed total and regional body composition in postmenopausal women by increasing LST in all women and decreasing FT in women on HRT. Hormone therapy showed no independent effects on body composition, but it protected nonexercising women from losses in LST. The lean and muscle strength changes observed were partially dependent on the volume of training, as expressed by attendance and total weight lifted in 1 yr of training.
• Blew, R. M., Sardinha, L. B., Milliken, L. A., Teixeira, P. J., Going, S. B., Ferreira, D. L., Harris, M. M., Houtkooper, L. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2002). Assessing the validity of body mass index standards in early postmenopausal women. Obesity Research, 10(8), 799-808.
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  PMID: 12181389;Abstract: Objective: To examine the relationship between percentage of total body fat (%Fat) and body mass index (BMI) in early postmenopausal women and to evaluate the validity of the BMI standards for obesity established by the NIH. Research Methods and Procedures: Three hundred seventeen healthy, sedentary, postmenopausal women (ages, 40 to 66 years; BMI, 18 to 35 kg/m2; 3 to 10 years postmenopausal) participated in the study. Height, weight, BMI, and %Fat, as assessed by DXA, were measured. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to evaluate the ability of BMI to discriminate obesity from non-obesity using 38%Fat as the criterion value. Results: A moderately high relationship was observed between BMI and %Fat (r = 0.81; y = 1.41x + 2.65) with a SE of estimate of 3.9%. Eighty-one percent of other studies examined fell within 1 SE of estimate as derived from our study. Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed that BMI is a good diagnostic test for obesity. The cutoff for BMI corresponding to the criterion value of 38%Fat that maximized the sum of the sensitivity and specificity was 24.9 kg/m2. The true-positive (sensitivity) and false-positive (1 - specificity) rates were 84.4% and 14.6%, respectively. The area under the curve estimate for BMI was 0.914. Discussion: There is a strong association between %Fat and BMI in postmenopausal women. Current NIH BMI-based classifications for obesity may be misleading based on currently proposed %Fat standards. BMI >25 kg/m2 rather than BMI >30 kg/m2 may be superior for diagnosing obesity in postmenopausal women.
• Figueroa, A., Going, S. B., Milliken, L. A., Blew, R., Sharp, S., & Lohman, T. G. (2002). Body composition modulates the effects of hormone replacement therapy on growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I levels in postmenopausal women. Gynecologic and obstetric investigation, 54(4).
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  To examine the relationships of body composition with basal serum estrone, estradiol, androstenedione, cortisol, growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels in 73 postmenopausal women.
• Teixeira, P. J., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Cussler, E. C., Martin, C. J., Metcalfe, L. L., Finkenthal, N. R., Blew, R. M., Sardinha, L. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2002). Weight loss readiness in middle-aged women: psychosocial predictors of success for behavioral weight reduction. Journal of behavioral medicine, 25(6).
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  Accurate prediction of weight loss success and failure has eluded researchers for many years. Thus, we administered a comprehensive psychometric battery before a 4-month lifestyle behavioral weight reduction program and analyzed weight changes during that period to identify baseline characteristics of successful and unsuccessful participants, among 112 overweight and obese middle-aged women (age, 47.8 +/- 4.4 years; BMI, 31.4 +/- 3.9 kg/m2). Mean weight and percentage fat losses among the 89 completers were -5.4 kg and -3.4%, respectively (p < .001). A higher number of recent dieting attempts and recent weight loss, more stringent weight outcome evaluations, a higher perceived negative impact of weight on quality of life, lower self-motivation, higher body size dissatisfaction, and lower self-esteem were associated with less weight loss and significantly distinguished responders from nonresponders among all participants. These findings are discussed as to their usefulness (i) to screen individuals before treatment, (ii) to provide a better match between interventions to participants, and (iii) to build a weight loss readiness questionnaire.
• Teixeira, P., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. B., Cussler, E. C., Martin, C. J., Metcalfe, L. L., Finkenthal, N. R., Blew, R. M., Sardinha, L. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2002). Weight Loss Readiness in Middle-Aged Women: Psychosocial Predictors of Success for Behavioral Weight Reduction. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25(6), 499-523.
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  PMID: 12462956;Abstract: Accurate prediction of weight loss success and failure has eluded researchers for many years. Thus, we administered a comprehensive psychometric battery before a 4-month lifestyle behavioral weight reduction program and analyzed weight changes during that period to identify baseline characteristics of successful and unsuccessful participants, among 112 overweight and obese middle-aged women (age, 47.8 ± 4.4 years; BMI, 31.4 ± 3.9 kg/m2). Mean weight and percentage fat losses among the 89 completers were -5.4 kg and -3.4%, respectively (p < .001). A higher number of recent dieting attempts and recent weight loss, more stringent weight outcome evaluations, a higher perceived negative impact of weight on quality of life, lower self-motivation, higher body size dissatisfaction, and lower self-esteem were associated with less weight loss and significantly distinguished responders from nonresponders among all participants. These findings are discussed as to their usefulness (i) to screen individuals before treatment, (ii) to provide a better match between interventions to participants, and (iii) to build a weight loss readiness questionnaire.
• Houtkoopr, L., Mullins, V. A., Going, S. B., Brown, C. H., & Lohman, T. G. (2001). Body composition profiles of elite American heptathletes. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 11(2).
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  This study characterized body composition profiles of elite American heptathletes and cross-validated skinfold (SKF) and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) field method equations for estimation of percent body fat (%Fat) using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as the criterion. Weight, height, fat mass (FM), fat-free mass (FFM), bone mineral density (BMD), and %Fat were measured in 19 heptathletes using standard measurement protocols for DXA, SKFs and BIA. The ages, heights, and weights were respectively 25.5 +/- 3.5 years, 175.0 +/- 6.6 cm, 67.3 +/- 7.1 kg. DXA estimates of mean +/- SD values for body composition variables were 57.2 +/- 6.1 kg FFM, 10.1 +/- 2.6 kg FM, 114 +/- 7% BMD for age/racial reference group, and 15 +/- 3.0 %Fat. Ranges of bias values for %Fat (DXA minus SKF or BIA) were, respectively, -0.5 to 1.6% and -5.5 to -1.2%. Ranges for standard errors of estimate and total errors were, respectively, SKF 2.4-2.5%, 2.4 - 2.8% and BIA 3.0%, 5.0-6.5%. Regression analyses of the field methods on DXA were significant (p < .05) for all SKF equations but not BIA equations. This study demonstrates that elite American heptathletes are lean, have high levels of BMD, and that SKF equations provide more accurate estimates of %Fat relative to DXA than estimates from BIA equations.
• Metcalfe, L., Lohman, T., Going, S., Houtkooper, L., Ferriera, D., Flint-Wagner, H., Guido, T., Martin, J., Wright, J., & Cussler, E. (2001). Postmenopausal Women and Exercise for Prevention of Osteoporosis. ACSM's Health and Fitness Journal, 5(3), 6-14.
• Mullins, V. A., Houtkooper, L. B., Howell, W. H., Going, S. B., & Brown, C. H. (2001). Nutritional status of U.S. elite female heptathletes during training. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 11(3), 299-314.
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  PMID: 11591881;Abstract: This study describes the body composition, dietary nutrient intake, dietary practices, and biochemical indices of iron status of elite female American heptathletes during training. Four-day diet records and dietary practice questionnaires were obtained from 19 female heptathletes (26 ± 3 years) during the training season. Anthropometric measurements and fasting blood samples were obtained at the lowest phase of the training cycle. These athletes had a low body fat (13.8 ± 2.7%) and high fat-free mass to height ratios (33.0 ± 2.0 kg/m). Average nutrient intakes were > 67% of the reference intakes for all nutrients except vitamin E. Most dietary nutrient densities were higher than NHANES III nutrient densities for women 20-29 years old. More than 50% of the athletes took vitamin supplements and monitored their hydration status. Fifteen of the 17 athletes reported a normal menstrual cycle. Markers of biochemical iron status were all within the normal range. On average, these athletes were lean with high levels of fat free mass, adequate nutrient intakes, and normal biochemical indices of iron status. However, individual data reveals considerable variability within this group.
• Mullins, V. A., Houtkooper, L. B., Howell, W. H., Going, S. B., & Brown, C. H. (2001). Nutritional status of U.S. elite female heptathletes during training. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 11(3).
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  This study describes the body composition, dietary nutrient intake, dietary practices, and biochemical indices of iron status of elite female American heptathletes during training. Four-day diet records and dietary practice questionnaires were obtained from 19 female heptathletes (26 +/- 3 years) during the training season. Anthropometric measurements and fasting blood samples were obtained at the lowest phase of the training cycle. These athletes had a low body fat (13.8 +/- 2.7%) and high fat-free mass to height ratios (33.0 +/- 2.0 kg/m). Average nutrient intakes were > 67% of the reference intakes for all nutrients except vitamin E. Most dietary nutrient densities were higher than NHANES III nutrient densities for women 20-29 years old. More than 50% of the athletes took vitamin supplements and monitored their hydration status. Fifteen of the 17 athletes reported a normal menstrual cycle. Markers of biochemical iron status were all within the normal range. On average, these athletes were lean with high levels of fat free mass, adequate nutrient intakes, and normal biochemical indices of iron status. However, individual data reveals considerable variability within this group.
• Story, M., Stevens, J., Evans, M., Cornell, C. E., Juhaeri, ., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S. B., Clay, T. E., & Murray, D. M. (2001). Weight loss attempts and attitudes toward body size, eating, and physical activity in American Indian children: Relationship to weight status and gender. Obesity Research, 9(6), 356-363.
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  PMID: 11399782;Abstract: Objective: This study examined dieting, weight perceptions, and self-efficacy to eat healthy foods and engage in physical activity and their relationships to weight status and gender among American Indian elementary schoolchildren. Data for this study were collected as part of the baseline examination for the Pathways study. Participants were 1441 second-through third-grade American Indian children in 41 schools representing seven tribes in Arizona, New Mexico, and South Dakota who filled out a questionnaire and had heights and weights taken. Forty-two percent of the children were overweight or obese. No differences were found between overweight/ obese and normal weight children for healthy food intentions or self-efficacy. Heavier children (especially those with body mass index > 95th percentile) were more likely to have tried to lose weight or were currently trying to lose weight. No gender differences were found. Normal weight children chose a slightly heavier body size as most healthy compared with overweight/obese children. The results indicate that children are concerned about their weight and that weight modification efforts are common among overweight American Indian children. School, community, and family-based programs are needed to help young people adopt lifelong healthful eating and physical activity practices.
• Story, M., Stevens, J., Evans, M., Cornell, C. E., Juhaeri, ., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S. B., Clay, T. E., & Murray, D. M. (2001). Weight loss attempts and attitudes toward body size, eating, and physical activity in American Indian children: relationship to weight status and gender. Obesity research, 9(6).
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  This study examined dieting, weight perceptions, and self-efficacy to eat healthy foods and engage in physical activity and their relationships to weight status and gender among American Indian elementary schoolchildren.
• Teixeira, P. J., Sardinha, L. B., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2001). Total and regional fat and serum cardiovascular disease risk factors in lean and obese children and adolescents. Obesity research, 9(8).
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  This study was conducted to evaluate the association of total and central adiposity with serum cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors in lean and obese Portuguese children and adolescents.
• Thompson, J. L., Davis, S. M., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S., Becenti, A., Metcalfe, L., Stone, E., Harnack, L., & Ring, K. (2001). Patterns of physical activity among American Indian children: An assessment of barriers and support. Journal of Community Health, 26(6), 423-445.
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  PMID: 11759094;Abstract: Estimates indicate that 10% to 50% of American Indian and non-Indian children in the U.S. are obese, defined as a body mass index ≥ 95th percentile of the NHANES II reference data. Pathways is a two-phase, multi-site study to develop and test a school-based obesity prevention program in American Indian schoolchildren in grades three through five. During Phase I feasibility prior to initiation of the Pathways trial, data were collected related to physical activity patterns, and the supports of, and barriers to, physical activity. Nine schools from communities representing six different tribal groups participated in this study. Multiple measures were used for data collection including direct observation, paired child interviews, and in-depth interviews and focus groups with adults. Students completed the self-administered Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors (KAB) survey, and a Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ). Barriers to physical activity at schools included a lack of facilities, equipment, and trained staff persons for PE. Adults were not consistently active with their children, but they were highly supportive of their children's activity level. Children reported a strong enjoyment of physical activity and strong peer support to be physically active. Weather conditions, safety concerns, and homework/chores were common barriers to physical activity reported by children and adult caregivers. The informa tion was used to design culturally and age-appropriate, practical interventions including the five physical activity programs for schoolchildren in the Pathways study. © 2001 Human Sciences Press, Inc.
• Thompson, J. L., Davis, S. M., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S., Becenti, A., Metcalfe, L., Stone, E., Harnack, L., & Ring, K. (2001). Patterns of physical activity among American Indian children: an assessment of barriers and support. Journal of community health, 26(6).
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  Estimates indicate that 10% to 50% of American Indian and non-Indian children in the U.S. are obese, defined as a body mass index > or = 95th percentile of the NHANES II reference data. Pathways is a two-phase, multi-site study to develop and test a school-based obesity prevention program in American Indian schoolchildren in grades three through five. During Phase I feasibility prior to initiation of the Pathways trial, data were collected related to physical activity patterns, and the supports of, and barriers to, physical activity. Nine schools from communities representing six different tribal groups participated in this study. Multiple measures were used for data collection including direct observation, paired child interviews, and in-depth interviews and focus groups with adults. Students completed the self-administered Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors (KAB) survey, and a Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ). Barriers to physical activity at schools included a lack of facilities, equipment, and trained staff persons for PE. Adults were not consistently active with their children, but they were highly supportive of their children's activity level. Children reported a strong enjoyment of physical activity and strong peer support to be physically active. Weather conditions, safety concerns, and homework/chores were common barriers to physical activity reported by children and adult caregivers. The information was used to design culturally and age-appropriate, practical interventions including the five physical activity programs for schoolchildren in the Pathways study.
• Weber, J. L., Reid, P. M., Greaves, K. A., DeLany, J. P., Stanford, V. A., Going, S. B., Howell, W. H., & Houtkooper, L. B. (2001). Validity of self-reported energy intake in lean and obese young women, using two nutrient databases, compared with total energy expenditure assessed by doubly labeled water. European journal of clinical nutrition, 55(11).
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  To compare self-reported total energy intake (TEI) estimated using two databases with total energy expenditure (TEE) measured by doubly labeled water in physically active lean and sedentary obese young women, and to compare reporting accuracy between the two subject groups.
• Weber, J. L., Reid, P. M., Greaves, K. A., Delany, J. P., Stanford, V. A., Going, S. B., Howell, W. H., & Houtkooper, L. B. (2001). Validity of self-reported energy intake in lean and obese young women, using two nutrient databases, compared with total energy expenditure assessed by doubly labeled water. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55(11), 940-950.
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  PMID: 11641742;Abstract: Objective: To compare self-reported total energy intake (TEI) estimated using two databases with total energy expenditure (TEE) measured by doubly labeled water in physically active lean and sedentary obese young women, and to compare reporting accuracy between the two subject groups. Design: A cross-sectional study in which dietary intakes of women trained in diet-recording procedures were analyzed using the Minnesota Nutrition Data System (NDS; versions 2.4/6A/21, 2.6/6A/23 and 2.6/8.A/23) and Nutritionist III (N3; version 7.0) software. Reporting accuracy was determined by comparison of average TEI assessed by an 8 day estimated diet record with average TEE for the same period. Results: Reported TEI differed from TEE for both groups irrespective of nutrient database (P < 0.01). Measured TEE was 11.10 ± 2.54 and 11.96 ± 1.21 MJ for lean and obese subjects, respectively. Reported TEI, using either database, did not differ between groups. For lean women, TEI calculated by NDS was 7.66 ± 1.73 MJ and by N3 was 8.44 ± 1.59 MJ. Corresponding TEI for obese women were 7.46 ± 2.17 MJ from NDS and 7.34 ± 2.27 MJ from N3. Lean women under-reported by 23% (N3) and 30% (NDS), and obese women under-reported by 39% (N3) and 38% (NDS). Regardless of database, lean women reported higher carbohydrate intakes, and obese women reported higher total fat and individual fatty acid intakes. Higher energy intakes from mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids were estimated by NDS than by N3 in both groups of women (P ≤ 0.05). Conclusions: Both physically active lean and sedentary obese women under-reported TEI regardless of database, although the magnitude of under-reporting may be influenced by the database for the lean women.
• Houtkooper, L. B., Going, S. B., Sproul, J., Blew, R. M., & Lohman, T. G. (2000). Comparison of methods for assessing body-composition changes over 1 y in postmenopausal women. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 72(2).
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  Advances in dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) software algorithms have improved the accuracy of this method for body-composition measurement.
• Lohman, T. G., Caballero, B., Himes, J. H., Davis, C. E., Stewart, D., Houtkooper, L., Going, S. B., Hunsberger, S., Weber, J. L., Reid, R., & Stephenson, L. (2000). Estimation of body fat from anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance in Native American children. International Journal of Obesity, 24(8), 982-988.
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  PMID: 10951536;Abstract: OBJECTIVE: Obesity, as measured by body mass index, is highly prevalent in Native American children, yet there are no valid equations to estimate total body fatness for this population. This study was designed to develop equations to estimate percentage body fat from anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance as a critical part of Pathways, a multisite study of primary prevention of obesity in Native American children. DESIGN: Percentage fat was estimated from deuterium oxide dilution in 98 Native American children (Pima/Maricopa. Tohono O'odham and White Mountain Apache tribes) between 8 and 11 y of age. The mean fat content (38.4% ± 8.1%) was calculated assuming the water content of the fat-free body was 76%. Initial independent variables were height, weight, waist circumference, six skinfolds and whole-body resistance and reactance from bioelectrical impedance (BIA). RESULTS: Using all-possible-subsets regressions with the Mallows C (p) criterion, and with age and sex included in each regression model, waist circumference, calf and biceps skinfolds contributed least to the multiple regression analysis. The combination of weight, two skinfolds (any two out of the four best: triceps, suprailiac, subscapular and abdomen) and bioelectrical impedance variables provided excellent predictability. Equations without BIA variables yielded r2 almost as high as those with BIA variables. The recommended equation predicts percentage fat with a root mean square error = 3.2% fat and an adjusted r2 = 0.840. CONCLUSION: The combination of anthropometry and BIA variables can be used to estimate total body fat in field studies of Native American children. The derived equation yields considerably higher percentage fat values than other skinfold equations in children.
• Lohman, T. G., Caballero, B., Himes, J. H., Davis, C. E., Stewart, D., Houtkooper, L., Going, S. B., Hunsberger, S., Weber, J. L., Reid, R., & Stephenson, L. (2000). Estimation of body fat from anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance in Native American children. International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 24(8).
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  Obesity, as measured by body mass index, is highly prevalent in Native American children, yet there are no valid equations to estimate total body fatness for this population. This study was designed to develop equations to estimate percentage body fat from anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance as a critical part of Pathways, a multi-site study of primary prevention of obesity in Native American children.
• Sardinha, L. B., Teixeira, P. J., Guedes, D. P., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2000). Subcutaneous central fat is associated with cardiovascular risk factors in men independently of total fatness and fitness. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 49(11), 1379-1385.
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  PMID: 11092497;Abstract: The purpose of this study was to analyze the single and independent associations of whole body composition and fat distribution with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and fitness in middle-aged men. Sixty-two healthy Caucasian men (37.6 ± 2.9 yr, 81.8 ± 11.3 kg, 171.5 ± 4.9 cm) participated in the study. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used to assess total and regional body composition. The triceps, biceps, midthigh, calf, subscapular, chest, abdominal and suprailiac skinfolds, and the waist, hip and midthigh circumferences, and sagittal diameter were estimated. Cardiovascular fitness was estimated with a submaximal test. Bivariate and partial correlation analysis were used to study the association of total body percent fat (%fat), DXA trunk fat and trunk skinfolds (sum of subscapular, chest, abdominal, and suprailiac) and fitness with insulin, total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), TC/HDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides (TG), apolipoprotein AI (apo AI), apolipoprotein B (apo B), lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)], and diastolic and systolic blood pressure. All anthropometric and DXA body composition variables were significantly correlated with TC/HDL-C (r from .26 to .50, P < .05). Similar relationships were found for insulin, HDL-C, and systolic blood pressure (r from .26 to .47, P < .05). Cardiovascular fitness was significantly (P < .05) associated with insulin (r = -.35), HDL-C (r = .27), TC/HDL (r = -.27), and with systolic blood pressure (r = -.37). After controlling for trunk skinfolds, none of the anthropometric and DXA body composition variables ware correlated with any of the CVD risk factors. Similarly, when controlling for trunk skinfolds, cardiovascular fitness was not related to any of the metabolic variables. After adjusting for %fat, DXA trunk fat, and cardiovascular fitness, trunk skinfolds remained significantly (P < .05) related to insulin (r = .35), HDL-C (r = -.40), TC/HDL-C (r = .43), and apo AI (r = -.39). In conclusion, this study suggests that subcutaneous truncal fat, as estimated by skinfolds, is an independent predictor of CVD risk factors, and that the association between cardiovascular fitness and these risk factors may be mediated by the levels of abdominal subcutaneous fat in Caucasian middle-aged men. (C) 2000 by W.B. Saunders Company.
• Sardinha, L. B., Teixeira, P. J., Guedes, D. P., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (2000). Subcutaneous central fat is associated with cardiovascular risk factors in men independently of total fatness and fitness. Metabolism: clinical and experimental, 49(11).
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  The purpose of this study was to analyze the single and independent associations of whole body composition and fat distribution with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and fitness in middle-aged men. Sixty-two healthy Caucasian men (37.6 +/- 2.9 yr, 81.8 +/- 11.3 kg, 171.5 +/- 4.9 cm) participated in the study. Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used to assess total and regional body composition. The triceps, biceps, midthigh, calf, subscapular, chest, abdominal and suprailiac skinfolds, and the waist, hip and midthigh circumferences, and sagittal diameter were estimated. Cardiovascular fitness was estimated with a submaximal test. Bivariate and partial correlation analysis were used to study the association of total body percent fat (%fat), DXA trunk fat and trunk skinfolds (sum of subscapular, chest, abdominal, and suprailiac) and fitness with insulin, total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), TC/HDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides (TG), apolipoprotein AI (apo AI), apolipoprotein B (apo B), lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)], and diastolic and systolic blood pressure. All anthropometric and DXA body composition variables were significantly correlated with TC/HDL-C (from .26 to .50, P < .05). Similar relationships were found for insulin, HDL-C, and systolic blood pressure (r from .26 to .47, P < .05). Cardiovascular fitness was significantly (P < .05) associated with insulin (r = -.36), HDL-C (r = .27), TC/HDL (r = -.27), and with systolic blood pressure (r = -.37). After controlling for trunk skinfolds, none of the anthropometric and DXA body composition variables were correlated with any of the CVD risk factors. Similarly, when controlling for trunk skinfolds, cardiovascular fitness was not related to any of the metabolic variables. After adjusting for %fat, DXA trunk fat, and cardiovascular fitness, trunk skinfolds remained significantly (P < .05) related to insulin (r = .35), HDL-C (r = -.40), TC/HDL-C (r = .43), and apo AI (r = -.39). In conclusion, this study suggests that subcutaneous truncal fat, as estimated by skinfolds, is an independent predictor of CVD risk factors, and that the association between cardiovascular fitness and these risk factors may be mediated by the levels of abdominal subcutaneous fat in Caucasian middle-aged men.
• Davis, S. M., Going, S. B., Helitzer, D. L., Teufel, N. I., Snyder, P., Gittelsohn, J., Metcalfe, L., Arviso, V., Evans, M., Smyth, M., Brice, R., & Altaha, J. (1999). Pathways: A culturally appropriate obesity-prevention program for American Indian schoolchildren. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69(4 SUPPL.), 796S-802S.
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  PMID: 10195605;Abstract: Pathways, a culturally appropriate obesity prevention study for third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade American Indian schoolchildren includes an intervention that promotes increased physical activity and healthful eating behaviors. The Pathways intervention, developed through a collaboration of universities and American Indian nations, schools, and families, focuses on individual, behavioral, and environmental factors and merges constructs from social learning theory with American Indian customs and practices. We describe the Pathways program developed during 3 y of feasibility testing in American Indian schools, with special emphasis on the activities developed for the third grade; review the theoretical and cultural underpinnings of the program; outline the construction process of the intervention; detail the curriculum and physical education components of the intervention; and summarize the formative assessment and the school food service and family components of the intervention.
• Davis, S. M., Going, S. B., Helitzer, D. L., Teufel, N. I., Snyder, P., Gittelsohn, J., Metcalfe, L., Arviso, V., Evans, M., Smyth, M., Brice, R., & Altaha, J. (1999). Pathways: a culturally appropriate obesity-prevention program for American Indian schoolchildren. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 69(4 Suppl).
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  Pathways, a culturally appropriate obesity prevention study for third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade American Indian schoolchildren includes an intervention that promotes increased physical activity and healthful eating behaviors. The Pathways intervention, developed through a collaboration of universities and American Indian nations, schools, and families, focuses on individual, behavioral, and environmental factors and merges constructs from social learning theory with American Indian customs and practices. We describe the Pathways program developed during 3 y of feasibility testing in American Indian schools, with special emphasis on the activities developed for the third grade; review the theoretical and cultural underpinnings of the program; outline the construction process of the intervention; detail the curriculum and physical education components of the intervention; and summarize the formative assessment and the school food service and family components of the intervention.
• Going, S. B., Levin, S., Harrell, J., Stewart, D., Kushi, L., Cornell, C. E., Hunsberger, S., Corbin, C., & Sallis, J. (1999). Physical activity assessment in American Indian schoolchildren in the Pathways study. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 69(4 Suppl).
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  The objective of the Pathways physical activity feasibility study was to develop methods for comparing type and amount of activity between intervention and control schools participating in a school-based obesity prevention program. Two methods proved feasible: 1) a specially designed 24-h physical activity recall questionnaire for assessing the frequency and type of activities and 2) use of a triaxial accelerometer for assessing amount of activity. Results from pilot studies supporting the use of these methods are described. Analyses of activity during different segments of the day showed that children were most active after school. The activities reported most frequently (e.g., basketball and mixed walking and running) were also the ones found to be most popular in the study population on the basis of formative assessment surveys. Both the physical activity recall questionnaire and the triaxial accelerometer methods will be used to assess the effects of the full-scale intervention on physical activity.
• Helitzer, D. L., Davis, S. M., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S. B., Murray, D. M., Snyder, P., & Steckler, A. B. (1999). Process evaluation in a multisite, primary obesity-prevention trial in American Indian schoolchildren. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69(4 SUPPL.), 816S-824S.
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  PMID: 10195608;Abstract: We describe the development, implementation, and use of the process evaluation component of a multisite, primary obesity prevention trial for American Indian schoolchildren. We describe the development and pilot testing of the instruments, provide some examples of the criteria for instrument selection, and provide examples of how process evaluation results were used to document and refine intervention components. The theoretical and applied framework of the process evaluation was based on diffusion theory, social learning theory, and the desire for triangulation of multiple modes of data collection. The primary objectives of the process evaluation were to systematically document the training process, content, and implementation of 4 components of the intervention. The process evaluation was developed and implemented collaboratively so that it met the needs of both the evaluators and those who would be implementing the intervention components. Process evaluation results revealed that observation and structured interviews provided the most informative data; however, these methods were the most expensive and time consuming and required the highest level of skill to undertake. Although the literature is full of idealism regarding the uses of process evaluation for formative and summative purposes, in reality, many persons are sensitive to having their work evaluated in such an in-depth, context-based manner as is described. For this reason, use of structured, quantitative, highly objective tools may be more effective than qualitative methods, which appear to be more dependent on the skills and biases of the researcher and the context in which they are used.
• Helitzer, D. L., Davis, S. M., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S. B., Murray, D. M., Snyder, P., & Steckler, A. B. (1999). Process evaluation in a multisite, primary obesity-prevention trial in American Indian schoolchildren. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 69(4 Suppl).
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  We describe the development, implementation, and use of the process evaluation component of a multisite, primary obesity prevention trial for American Indian schoolchildren. We describe the development and pilot testing of the instruments, provide some examples of the criteria for instrument selection, and provide examples of how process evaluation results were used to document and refine intervention components. The theoretical and applied framework of the process evaluation was based on diffusion theory, social learning theory, and the desire for triangulation of multiple modes of data collection. The primary objectives of the process evaluation were to systematically document the training process, content, and implementation of 4 components of the intervention. The process evaluation was developed and implemented collaboratively so that it met the needs of both the evaluators and those who would be implementing the intervention components. Process evaluation results revealed that observation and structured interviews provided the most informative data; however, these methods were the most expensive and time consuming and required the highest level of skill to undertake. Although the literature is full of idealism regarding the uses of process evaluation for formative and summative purposes, in reality, many persons are sensitive to having their work evaluated in such an in-depth, context-based manner as is described. For this reason, use of structured, quantitative, highly objective tools may be more effective than qualitative methods, which appear to be more dependent on the skills and biases of the researcher and the context in which they are used.
• Sardinha, L. B., Going, S. B., Teixeira, P. J., & Lohman, T. G. (1999). Receiver operating characteristic analysis of body mass index, triceps skinfold thickness, and arm girth for obesity screening in children and adolescents. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 70(6).
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  Valid and practical methods based on health-related criteria for obesity screening in children and adolescents are not available. Arbitrarily defined body mass index (BMI) cutoffs have been proposed to select adolescents at high risk of developing obesity in adulthood.
• Stevens, J., Cornell, C. E., Story, M., French, S. A., Levin, S., Becenti, A., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S. B., & Reid, R. (1999). Development of a questionnaire to assess knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors in American Indian children. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 69(4 Suppl).
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  One aim of the Pathways study is to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of American Indian children in grades 3-5 regarding physical activity and diet in. This article describes the development of a culturally sensitive, age-appropriate questionnaire to assess these variables. The questionnaire was designed to be administered in the classroom in two 30-min sessions. Questions were developed to assess 4 key areas: physical activity, diet, weight-related attitudes, and cultural identity. Potential questions were written after review of relevant literature and existing questionnaires. Numerous and extensive revisions were made in response to input from structured, semistructured, and informal data collection. Questions were pretested in 32 children in grades 3-5 by using semistructured interviews. Test-retest reliability and the internal consistency of scales were examined in 371 fourth-grade children and subsequently in 145 fourth-grade children. Questions were reviewed by American Indians from the communities involved in the Pathways study several times during the developmental process. The process described here serves as one model for the development of a culturally appropriate tool to assess knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors in American Indian children.
• Stevens, J., Story, M., Becenti, A., French, S. A., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S. B., Juhaeri, ., Levin, S., & Murray, D. M. (1999). Weight-related attitudes and behaviors in fourth grade American Indian children. Obesity Research, 7(1), 34-42.
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  PMID: 10023728;Abstract: Objective: American Indian children have a high prevalence of obesity, yet little is known about weight-related attitudes and the prevalence of dieting in this population. This study assessed weight concerns, body size perceptions, weight reduction attempts, and weight loss methods in fourth grade American Indian children. Research Methods' and Procedures: Participants (n = 304) attended one of eight schools in the Pathways Feasibility Study. Question and answer choices were read to children by trained staff, and children marked their own answers. Results: Thirty-eight percent of the children reported that they had tried to lose weight. The most common strategy for weight reduction was exercising more. Girls were more likely than boys to be dissatisfied with their body size (48% of girls vs. 34% of boys desired a slimmer body size; 22% of girls vs. 15% of boys desired a larger body size; p
• Stevens, J., Story, M., Becenti, A., French, S. A., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S. B., Juhaeri, ., Levin, S., & Murray, D. M. (1999). Weight-related attitudes and behaviors in fourth grade American Indian children. Obesity research, 7(1).
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  American Indian children have a high prevalence of obesity, yet little is known about weight-related attitudes and the prevalence of dieting in this population. This study assessed weight concerns, body size perceptions, weight reduction attempts, and weight loss methods in fourth grade American Indian children.
• Houtkooper, L., Ricketts, J., Going, S., Ayan, N., & Robertson, T. (1998). Comparison of field body composition techniques in elite female heptathletes. FASEB Journal, 12(5), A1038.
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  Abstract: Criterion methods of measuring body composition are often limited to a laboratory setting. An alternative to criterion methods are the more mobile field methods, which are simple techniques for measuring body composition. Cross-validation of prediction equations for specific athletic populations can be used to determine prediction accuracy for estimates of percent body fat (%BF). This study compares two field methods [skinfolds (SKF), bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)] to two criterion methods [dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and a multi-component model (MULTI-Lohman, 1986)]. Prediction equations used for both field methods were developed for young athletic women. The subjects were 18 elite female heptathletes participating in a USA Track and Field Development Project. Standard protocols and tetrapolar placement for whole body BIA were used and the prediction equations include: A) Lohman, 1992, B) Lohman, active women 1992, and C) Valhalla, model 1990b. Standard procedures were used for skinfold measurement and the prediction equations include: A) Jackson & Pollock, 1985 (3 site), and B) Jackson & Pollock, 1985 (4 site). Correlation analysis between criterion methods and field methods were significant (p
• Sardinha, L. B., Lohman, T. G., Teixeira, P. J., Guedes, D. P., & Going, S. B. (1998). Comparison of air displacement plethysmography with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and 3 field methods for estimating body composition in middle-aged men. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 68(4).
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  This study was designed to compare air displacement plethysmography with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and 3 other field methods for estimation of body composition. Subjects were 62 healthy, white men aged 37.6+/-2.9 y (weight: 81.8+/-11.3 kg; height: 171.5+/-4.9 cm). Body composition was also assessed by using body mass index, single-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis, multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance spectroscopy, and the skinfold-thickness equations of Jackson and Pollock and Durnin and Womersley. Percentage body fat (%BF) with the plethysmograph was 23.4+/-7.0 and with DXA was 26.0+/-7.4. The 2.6% mean difference was significant (P< 0.05). Total error was 3.7%BF. As assessed by multiple regression analysis, %BF with the plethysmograph, age, weight, and height yielded a DXA-adjusted R2 value of 89.5% fat and an SEE of 2.4% fat. All other models had higher SEEs and lower adjusted R2 values: 4.3% and 66.5% for body mass index, 3.3% and 79.8% for bioelectrical impedance analysis, 3.6% and 76.2% for bioelectrical impedance spectroscopy, 3.7% and 74.55% for the equations of Jackson and Pollock, and 3.9% and 71.6% for the equations of Durnin and Womersley, respectively. The plethysmograph also predicted fat mass and fat-free mass more accurately than all other models, with a lower SEE and higher adjusted R2 value. In conclusion, although %BF was systematically underestimated, body composition was closely estimated with air displacement plethysmography in middle-aged men.
• Al-Sarraj, T., Greaves, K., Anderson, S., Lohman, T., Going, S., & Fernandez, M. L. (1997). Cholesteryl ester tranfer protein (CETP) and lecithin: Cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) activities in postmenopausal women exercise and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) effects. FASEB Journal, 11(3), A152.
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  Abstract: This study compared CETP and LCAT activities in post-menopausal women not undergoing HRT nor doing exercise (CNT group), those undergoing HRT and those doing aerobic endurance exercise 3 days/wk, one h/day during a 6 month period (EXE group). Participants were 55-70 years old (10 CNT, 12 HRT and 10 EXE). Values for plasma total and HDL cholesterol and CETP and LCAT activities were calculated from the mean of two samples taken at different times to adjust for variability within subjects. There was a strong correlation between plasma total and HDL cholesterol of samples measured day 1 versus day 2 which was taken 7-14 days later (r = 0.86 and 0.91, respectively, P < 0.001) Plasma total and HDL cholesterol were not different among groups. Values were 209 ± 24, 211 ± 38 and 209 ± 22 for total and 53 ± 14, 50 ± 9 and 57 ± 16 for HDL in the CNT, HRT and EXE groups respectively. Plasma LCAT activity expressed as μg/ml-h was higher in the EXE group (26.9 ± 7.4) compared to CNT group (21.2 ± 4.6) (P < 0.05) and the HRT group had an intermediate value (25.3 ± 7.0) not different from either group. CETP activities did not differ among groups (14.6 ± 4.5, 15.5 ± 3.1 and 13.8 ± 5.2 μg/ml-h). These studies suggest that although differences were not observed on plasma HDL cholesterol values among groups, exercise favors cholesterol esterification in HDL through LCAT activity improving reverse cholesterol transport in postmenopausal women.
• Becenti, A., Levin, S., Going, S., Metcalfe, L., Booth, K., Allaha, J., Beach, B., & Kushi, L. (1996). School-based physical activity program for american indian children. FASEB Journal, 10(3), A505.
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  Abstract: The Pathways physical activity intervention is a school-based activity program that promotes children's enjoyment and participation in regular, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity with a long range goal of encouraging lifelong activity to prevent obesity. Recess and physical education (PE) are emphasized. After reviewing existing curricula. Pathways PE was developed from SPARK PE, which was shown to increase activity during PE in other populations. Healthrelated physical activity goals are emphasized while also developing sports-related skills. This approach was taken since adequate skill development contributes to lifelong enjoyment in a variety of physical activities. Cultural relevance was enhanced by adding American Indian games. Recess activity is increased through age-appropriate activity challenges. Two PE classes and three recess sessions per week were set as minimum goals. Pilot studies showed the program was feasible in four Indian communities. Moreover, with adequate training and support, the program may be delivered by either classroom teachers or PE specialists.
• Going, S., Stewart, D., Harrell, J., Levin, S., Corbin, C., Sallis, J., Cornell, C., Hunsberger, S., & Lytle, L. (1996). Physical activity assessment in American Indian children in the pathways study. FASEB Journal, 10(3), A816.
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  Abstract: Physical inactivity is a risk factor lor weight gain and obesity. Accordingly, increased activity is a focus of the Pathways intervention and an activity assessment plan was developed. Formative assessment showed two methods were feasible: physical activity recall questionnaire (PAO) and accelerometry (TriTrac-R3D motion sensor). Together, they describe activity frequency, type and amount. Moreover, minute-by minute TriTrac outputs allow analysis of activity for any segment of the day. The age-appropriate, culturally-relevant PAQ, developed by a panel of experts with American Indian (AI) input, was designed to assess 24 hr activity type and amount (none, a little, alot) during three segments of the day: before, during and after school. Pilot tests of 117 fourth grade Al children supported PAQ validity since children reported more activity during times of expected activity (before and after school) compared to times of expected inactivity (dining school). TriTrac estimates supported these results, and showed childrens activity levels were more alike within schools than between schools. Using pilot data, algorithms have been developed to speed processing of accelerometer data. Supported by NHLBI.
• Greaves, K., Fernanadez, M. L., Going, S., & Bassford, T. (1996). CLTP and LCAT activity in postmenopausal women. FASEB Journal, 10(3), A747.
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  Abstract: The ami of this study was to compare cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) and lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase 11.(A I') activities in postmenopausal women not undergoing hormone replacement therapy (noHRT) vs. women undergoing estrogen lephicemem therapy (FRT) or a combined HRT (cHRT). Ie; postmenopausal women 55-70 years of age participated m the study CI-TP und LCAT activities were measured by decreases in the mass of endogenous unesterified cholesterol in incubated plasma samples. Mean total cholesterol (255 ± 38. 213 ± 31 and 261 ±39), HDL cholesterol ((SO t. 11.61 ± 11.59-t 23 ) and total/HDL ratios (4.3 ± 0.5, 3.7±11.51 ±11.51 ± 25) were not different among groups (noHRT, FRT. cHRT. respectn-elv i No differences were found m either ( I TP or LCAT activities among groups, however there was a trend for CL'I P activity to lie higher in the two groups undergoing HRT Mean CETP activities for noHRT, FR1. and cHRT were 15 8, 34 6, 54.3 ninol ml-hr. respectively Mean LCAT activities for the three groups were 62 6, 69.2. 56 7 nmol/ml-hr. respectively This study .suggests that hormone replacement therapy may not affect reverse cholesterol transport bv i CAT and CFTP mediated mechanisms.
• Helitzer-Alien, D., Gittelsohn, J., Going, S., Murray, D., & Steckjcr, A. (1996). Process evaluation in pathways, a multi-site primary prevention study. FASEB Journal, 10(3), A816.
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  Abstract: In a multi-site study focusing on a complex intervention, impact and outcome data must be linked to program activities to explain any changes that occur in measurements during the program. Process evaluation systematically documents activities within both intervention and control environments. In Pathways, instruments were developed to document exposure to and implementation of the intervention components and the alternative intervention at control schools, as well as community-level conditions. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect data for the process evaluation. These methods include indepth (structured and open-ended) interviews, observations, structured check lists, and questionnaires. These instruments were pilot tested during the fall of 1995. The instruments provided rich data which, triangulated from qualitative and quantitative methods, were instructive and revealing as to the strengths and weaknesses of the implementation of each of the components.
• Houtkooper, L. B., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., & Howell, W. H. (1996). Why bioelectrical impedance analysis should be used for estimating adiposity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 64(3 SUPPL.), 436S-448S.
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  PMID: 8780360;Abstract: The whole-body bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) approach for estimating adiposity and body fat is based on empirical relations established by many investigators. Properly used, this noninvasive body-composition assessment approach can quickly, easily, and relatively inexpensively provide accurate and reliable estimates of fat-free mass (FFM) and total body water (TBW) in healthy populations. The estimated FFM or TBW values are used to calculate absolute and relative body fat amounts. When different investigators follow the same standard BIA procedures and use the same population and criterion method, similar prediction equations and relatively small prediction errors have been reported for measurement of FFM and TBW (SEE: 1.7-3.0 for FFM and 0.23-1.5 kg for TBW). The BIA approach is most appropriate for estimating adiposity of groups in epidemiologic and field studies but has limited accuracy for estimating body composition in individuals. When used as a simple index (stature2/resistance), BIA is more sensitive and specific for grading average adiposity in groups than some other anthropometric indexes such as the body mass index. Prediction equations based on BIA have been validated and cross validated in children, youths, adults, and the elderly, in primarily white populations and, to a limited extent, in Asian, black, and Native American populations.
• Houtkooper, L. B., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., & Howell, W. H. (1996). Why bioelectrical impedance analysis should be used for estimating adiposity. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 64(3 Suppl).
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  The whole-body bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) approach for estimating adiposity and body fat is based on empirical relations established by many investigators. Properly used, this noninvasive body-composition assessment approach can quickly, easily, and relatively inexpensively provide accurate and reliable estimates of fat-free mass (FFM) and total body water (TBW) in healthy populations. The estimated FFM or TBW values are used to calculate absolute and relative body fat amounts. When different investigators follow the same standard BIA procedures and use the same population and criterion method, similar prediction equations and relatively small prediction errors have been reported for measurement of FFM and TBW (SEE: 1.7-3.0 for FFM and 0.23-1.5 kg for TBW). The BIA approach is most appropriate for estimating adiposity of groups in epidemiologic and field studies but has limited accuracy for estimating body composition in individuals. When used as a simple index (stature2/ resistance), BIA is more sensitive and specific for grading average adiposity in groups than some other anthropometric indexes such as the body mass index. Prediction equations based on BIA have been validated and cross-validated in children, youths, adults, and the elderly, in primarily white populations and, to a limited extent, in Asian, black, and Native American populations.
• Milliken, L. A., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (1996). Effects of variations in regional composition on soft tissue measurements by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. International Journal of Obesity, 20(7), 677-682.
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  PMID: 8817362;Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of variations in regional composition on the accuracy of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in humans by placing packets of lard, water and ground beef, to simulate fat, very lean tissue and high density lean material, on the thighs and abdomen. SUBJECTS: 28 healthy males and females (mean age: 25 y; mean % fat: 24.6%). METHODS: Up to six consecutive total body DXA scans (baseline plus five scans with added packets) at 16 cm/s were performed on each subject (Lunar DPX-L, software version 1.3y). Eight conditions were examined: one lard packet (n = 18), two stacked lard packets, one ground beef packet and one water packet (all n = 10) alternately placed on the thighs and abdomen. Masses (kg) and percentage fats (% fat) of the lard, water and ground beef packets were 1.45 and 90%, 2.80 and 4% and 1.80 and 24%, respectively. RESULTS: Differences between actual (baseline plus packet) and measured composition were assessed using paired t-tests (p < 0.05). Under all conditions except with two abdominal lard packets, actual and measured total mass were similar (p > 0.05). Percentage fat of one lard packet was significantly underestimated when placed on the abdomen (90% actual vs 52% measured). The % fat of two lard packets was underestimated when placed on the thighs (90% vs 77%) and abdomen (90% vs 47%) while the % fat of the water packet was overestimated in both locations. CONCLUSION: The Lunar DXA underestimates the % fat of lard placed over the abdomen moreso than when placed over the thighs and overestimates % fat of water in both locations independent of thickness. Ground beef is accurately detected.
• Milliken, L. A., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (1996). Effects of variations in regional composition on soft tissue measurements by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 20(7).
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  To assess the effect of variations in regional composition on the accuracy of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in humans by placing packets of lard, water and ground beef, to simulate fat, very lean tissue and high density lean material, on the thighs and abdomen.
• Robbins, A., Greaves, K., Femandez, M. L., & Going, S. (1996). Freezing does not affect the susceptibility of low density lipoprotein (LDL) to oxidation. FASEB Journal, 10(3), A748.
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  Abstract: The aims of this study were to determine the effect of sample freezing on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation and to determine mtra-assay and intra-subject variability. LDL oxidative susceptibility was determined by the analysis of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSl generated during incubation of LDL with Cu2+. Blood was drawn from healthy postmenopausal subjects and separated into two fresh aliquots (FRIA and FR1B) which were immediately assayed for LDL oxidation susceptibility, while a third aliquot was frozen (FROZ) for 2-4 weeks at -30°C before analysis Subjects returned 2-4 weeks later for a second blood draw and LDL oxidation was measured the same day (FR2) LDL oxidation values were 28 4 ± 10 0. 27 6 ± 7 n. 32 0 ± 69 0 and 29.7 ± 03 {mean ± SD. n - 8) for FRIA, FRIB, FRO/ and FR2 respectively There were no significant differences among treatments. Significant correlations (P
• Going, S., Williams, D., & Lohman, T. (1995). Aging and body composition: biological changes and methodological issues. Exercise and sport sciences reviews, 23.
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  There is no doubt that body composition changes with aging. Some general trends have been described, including an increase in body weight and fat mass in middle age followed by a decrease in stature, weight, FFM, and body cell mass at older ages. Losses in muscle, protein, and bone mineral contribute to the decline in FFM; however, the onset and rates of decline remain controversial. Most data are available for men and women < 80 yr and we know relatively little about the normal status and the changes that occur in body composition in elderly men and women. This situation has developed in part because the changes that occur in various body constituents with aging confound the estimation of body composition by traditional techniques. Hence, there is a need for longitudinal reference data in persons 80 yr of age, both to describe the normal status and to develop valid prediction equations for estimating body composition in older men and women in settings outside the laboratory. This should be possible using new technologies and approaches based on multiple component models of body composition. An understanding of the normal changes in body composition with increasing age, the normal variation in these changes, and their health implications is important for the health, nutritional support, and pharmacologic treatment of elderly men and women in the United States. The information is especially important because elderly men and women, in terms of both numbers and health care dollars, represent the most rapidly expanding segment of the U.S. population.
• Houtkooper, L. B., Ritenbaugh, C., Aickin, M., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., Weber, J. L., Greaves, K. A., Boyden, T. W., Pamenter, R. W., & Hall, M. C. (1995). Nutrients, body composition and exercise are related to change in bone mineral density in premenopausal women. Journal of Nutrition, 125(5), 1229-1237.
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  PMID: 7738683;Abstract: This study determined relationships among total energy intake, nutrient intake, body composition, exercise group status, and annual rates of change (slopes) in bone mineral density in 66 Caucasian premenopausal women (mean age, 34.4 ± 2.7) taking calcium supplements. Body composition components measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry included fat mass, soft tissue lean mass, and bone mineral density (g/cm2) of total body, spine (lumbar vertebrae 2-4), and three femur sites measured at baseline, 5, 12, and 18 mo. Nutrients were not significant variables in regression models predicting bone mineral density slopes (rates of change) at any femur site. The only significant variable in models predicting Ward's triangle bone mineral density slope was the initial fat mass and, for trochanter, exercise. Significant variables (P < 0.05) in models predicting total body bone mineral density slope included the initial fat mass and fat mass slope plus either vitamin A, carotene, fiber, magnesium, or phosphorus (R2 from 0.31 to 0.25) and fat mass slope plus sodium (R2 = 0.24). The significant variable in the model predicting L2-4 slope was energy intake (R2 = 0.17, P < 0.05). We conclude that nutrient intake, exercise, and body composition are related to bone mineral density rate of change and that relations among these variables vary by bone site.
• Houtkooper, L. B., Ritenbaugh, C., Aickin, M., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., Weber, J. L., Greaves, K. A., Boyden, T. W., Pamenter, R. W., & Hall, M. C. (1995). Nutrients, body composition and exercise are related to change in bone mineral density in premenopausal women. The Journal of nutrition, 125(5).
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  This study determined relationships among total energy intake, nutrient intake, body composition, exercise group status, and annual rates of change (slopes) in bone mineral density in 66 Caucasian premenopausal women (mean age, 34.4 +/- 2.7) taking calcium supplements. Body composition components measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry included fat mass, soft tissue lean mass, and bone mineral density (g/cm2) of total body, spine (lumbar vertebrae 2-4), and three femur sites measured at baseline, 5, 12, and 18 mo. Nutrients were not significant variables in regression models predicting bone mineral density slopes (rates of change) at any femur site. The only significant variable in models predicting Ward's triangle bone mineral density slope was the initial fat mass and, for trochanter, exercise. Significant variables (P < 0.05) in models predicting total body bone mineral density slope included the initial fat mass and fat mass slope plus either vitamin A, carotene, fiber, magnesium, or phosphorus (R2 from 0.31 to 0.25) and fat mass slope plus sodium (R2 = 0.24). The significant variable in the model predicting L2-4 slope was energy intake (R2 = 0.17, P < 0.05). We conclude that nutrient intake, exercise, and body composition are related to bone mineral density rate of change and that relations among these variables vary by bone site.
• Lohman, T., Going, S., Pamenter, R., Hall, M., Boyden, T., Houtkooper, L., Ritenbaugh, C., Bare, L., Hill, A., & Aickin, M. (1995). Effects of resistance training on regional and total bone mineral density in premenopausal women: A randomized prospective study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 10(7), 1015-1024.
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  PMID: 7484276;Abstract: This study was designed to assess the effects of 18 months of resistance exercise on regional and total bone mineral density (BMD) and soft tissue lean mass (STL) in premenopausal women aged 28-39 randomly assigned to an exercise or control group. Twenty-two exercise and 34 control subjects completed the 18-month training study. All subjects were previously inactive and untrained women. Initial, 5-, 12- and 18-month assessments were made of total and regional BMD and total and regional STL using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. All subjects consumed a 500 mg/day elemental calcium supplement throughout the study. Initial Ca intake without supplement averaged 1,023 mg/day in total sample. Serum levels of bone osteocalcin and dietary assessments using 12 randomly assigned days of diet records were also completed. Muscular strength was assessed from both 1 repetition maximum (RM) testing of 10 weightlifting exercises and by peak torque for hip abduction/adduction and knee extension/flexion. Training increased strength by 58.1% based on 1 RM testing and by 33.8% based on isokinetic testing at 18 months versus baseline. BMD increased significantly above baseline at the lumbar spine for the exercise group at 5 months (2.8%), 12 months (2.3%), and 18 months (1.9%) as compared with controls. Femur trochanter BMD increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the exercise group at 12 months (1.8%) and 18 months (2.0%) but not at 5 months (0.7%) as compared with controls. No changes in total BMD, arm BMD, or leg BMD were found. There was a 20% increase in BGP in the exercise group as compared with controls at 5 months and this difference was maintained throughout the study. For STL, significant increases for total, arm, and leg were found at 5, 12, and 18 months for the exercise group versus control ranging from 1-6% over baseline. These results support the use of strength training for increasing STL and muscular strength with smaller but significant regional increases in BMD in the premenopausal population.
• Lohman, T., Going, S., Pamenter, R., Hall, M., Boyden, T., Houtkooper, L., Ritenbaugh, C., Bare, L., Hill, A., & Aickin, M. (1995). Effects of resistance training on regional and total bone mineral density in premenopausal women: a randomized prospective study. Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, 10(7).
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  This study was designed to assess the effects of 18 months of resistance exercise on regional and total bone mineral density (BMD) and soft tissue lean mass (STL) in premenopausal women aged 28-39 randomly assigned to an exercise or control group. Twenty-two exercise and 34 control subjects completed the 18-month training study. All subjects were previously inactive and untrained women. Initial, 5-, 12- and 18-month assessments were made of total and regional BMD and total and regional STL using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. All subjects consumed a 500 mg/day elemental calcium supplement throughout the study. Initial Ca intake without supplement averaged 1,023 mg/day in total sample. Serum levels of bone osteocalcin and dietary assessments using 12 randomly assigned days of diet records were also completed. Muscular strength was assessed from both 1 repetition maximum (RM) testing of 10 weightlifting exercises and by peak torque for hip abduction/adduction and knee extension/flexion. Training increased strength by 58.1% based on 1 RM testing and by 33.8% based on isokinetic testing at 18 months versus baseline. BMD increased significantly above baseline at the lumbar spine for the exercise group at 5 months (2.8%), 12 months (2.3%), and 18 months (1.9%) as compared with controls. Femur trochanter BMD increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the exercise group at 12 months (1.8%) and 18 months (2.0%) but not at 5 months (0.7%) as compared with controls. No changes in total BMD, arm BMD, or leg BMD were found. There was a 20% increase in BGP in the exercise group as compared with controls at 5 months and this difference was maintained throughout the study. For STL, significant increases for total, arm, and leg were found at 5, 12, and 18 months for the exercise group versus control ranging from 1-6% over baseline. These results support the use of strength training for increasing STL and muscular strength with smaller but significant regional increases in BMD in the premenopausal population.
• Williams, D. P., Going, S. B., Milliken, L. A., Hall, M. C., & Lohman, T. G. (1995). Practical techniques for assessing body composition in middle-aged and older adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), 776-783.
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  PMID: 7674884;Abstract: The purpose of this study was to compare the relationships of anthropometric, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and near infrared interactance (NIR) measurements with a multiple-component (MC) criterion estimate of body composition de rived from body density (D), body water (W), and bone mineral (B) in 48 white adults aged 49-80 yr. Relative errors of predicting the MC criterion from the practical measurements were determined by simple regressions within gender and calculated as the SEE divided by the criterion mean and expressed as a percentage. Relative errors were lowest for the BIA variable, height2/resistance (4.8-5.0%), higher for body mass index and the sum of 10 skinfold thicknesses (7.0-14.5%), and highest for NIR derived optical density readings at the biceps and the sum of 10 sites (10.8- 15.8%). Due to the low relative prediction error for height2/resistance, sex-specific BIA formulas for estimating fat-free mass from D, W, and B (FFM- DWB) were developed. The SEEs for predicting FFM DWB from BIA, weight, and age were both 1.5 kg in women and men. Because BIA is not limited to ambulatory subjects, it is concluded that BIA may be a particularly useful, practical technique for estimating body composition in older adults.
• Williams, D. P., Going, S. B., Milliken, L. A., Hall, M. C., & Lohman, T. G. (1995). Practical techniques for assessing body composition in middle-aged and older adults. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 27(5).
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  The purpose of this study was to compare the relationships of anthropometric, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and near infrared interactance (NIR) measurements with a multiple-component (MC) criterion estimate of body composition derived from body density (D), body water (W), and bone mineral (B) in 48 white adults aged 49-80 yr. Relative errors of predicting the MC criterion from the practical measurements were determined by simple regressions within gender and calculated as the SEE divided by the criterion mean and expressed as a percentage. Relative errors were lowest for the BIA variable, height2/resistance (4.8-5.0%), higher for body mass index and the sum of 10 skinfold thicknesses (7.0-14.5%), and highest for NIR-derived optical density readings at the biceps and the sum of 10 sites (10.8-15.8%). Due to the low relative prediction error for height2/resistance, sex-specific BIA formulas for estimating fat-free mass from D, W, and B (FFM-DWB) were developed. The SEEs for predicting FFM-DWB from BIA, weight, and age were both 1.5 kg in women and men. Because BIA is not limited to ambulatory subjects, it is concluded that BIA may be a particularly useful, practical technique for estimating body composition in older adults.
• Boyden, T. W., Pamenter, R. W., Going, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Hall, M. C., Houtkooper, L. B., Bunt, J. C., Ritenbaugh, C., & Aickin, M. (1993). Resistance exercise training is associated with decreases in serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in premenopausal women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153(1), 97-100.
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  PMID: 8422204;Abstract: Background: Aerobic exercise training is associated with reduced serum concentrations of triglycerides, increased concentrations of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and minimal changes in serum levels of total cholesterol or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. There are few data on the effects of resistance exercise on blood lipid levels. Methods: Premenopausal women were randomly assigned to a supervised resistance exercise training program (n=46) or a control group (n=42) for 5 months. Serum was analyzed for levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides. Body composition and dietary intake were also measured. Results: The exercise group showed a 0.33±0.03-mmol/L (mean±SE) decrease in total cholesterol level and a 0.36±0.001-mmol/L decrease in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level that was significantly different from the control group. No significant changes were noted in serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol or triglyceride levels in either group. Changes in body composition showed no significant correlations with changes in total cholesterol or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. There were no significant differences in nutrient intake between the groups. Conclusion: In healthy, premenopausal women, with normal baseline lipid profiles, 5 months of resistance exercise training was associated with significant decreases in serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations.
• Going, S. B., Massett, M. P., Hall, M. C., Bare, L. A., Root, P. A., Williams, D. P., & Lohman, T. G. (1993). Detection of small changes in body composition by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(6), 845-850.
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  PMID: 8503351;Abstract: The ability of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) to detect small changes in body composition was studied in 17 men and women during a dehydration-rehydration protocol. Scale weight (BW) and total mass (TM) from DEXA were highly related (r > 0.99) as were estimates of fat-free mass (r = 0.99) and percent fat (r = 0.97) from DEXA and densitometry. Changes in BW of ≈1.5 kg due to fluid loss and gain were highly correlated (r = 0.90) with both changes in TM and soft-tissue mass (STM) by DEXA but less so (r = 0.67) with changes in lean-tissue mass (LTM). Mean changes in TM, STM, and LTM were not different (P > 0.05) from changes in BW. Estimates of bone mass and fat were unaffected by changes in hydration. We conclude that DEXA is able to detect small individual changes in TM and STM and is also useful for detecting group changes in LTM.
• Hansen, N. J., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., Hall, M. C., Pamenter, R. W., Bare, L. A., Boyden, T. W., & Houtkooper, L. B. (1993). Prediction of body composition in premenopausal females from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Journal of Applied Physiology, 75(4), 1637-1641.
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  PMID: 8282614;Abstract: Four methods for predicting body composition were compared in premenopausal females (n = 100), 28-39 yr old, by using underwater weighing (UWW) as the criterion method. The four methods were dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), skinfolds, bioelectrical impedance, and body mass index. The sample had a mean percent fat (%fat) of 29.7 ± 6.8% (SD) by DEXA and 29.9 ± 5.8% measured by UWW. DEXA yielded a standard error of estimate (SE) of 2.4% (r = 0.91) for the prediction of %fat from UWW. When %fat was estimated from other methods, larger SEs were obtained: 3.0% for skinfolds, 3.3% for body mass index, and 2.9% for bioelectrical impedance (height2/resistance) plus weight. Individual body density values derived from UWW were corrected for bone mineral variation. DEXA predicted the corrected body density with a lower SE (0.0040 vs. 0.0053 g/ml) than the original density values. We conclude that DEXA was a precise method and correlated highly with fat-free body weight and %fat from UWW in this homogeneous female sample.
• Hansen, N. J., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., Hall, M. C., Pamenter, R. W., Bare, L. A., Boyden, T. W., & Houtkooper, L. B. (1993). Prediction of body composition in premenopausal females from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985), 75(4).
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  Four methods for predicting body composition were compared in premenopausal females (n = 100), 28-39 yr old, by using underwater weighing (UWW) as the criterion method. The four methods were dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), skinfolds, bioelectrical impedance, and body mass index. The sample had a mean percent fat (%fat) of 29.7 +/- 6.8% (SD) by DEXA and 29.9 +/- 5.8% measured by UWW. DEXA yielded a standard error of estimate (SE) of 2.4% (r = 0.91) for the prediction of %fat from UWW. When %fat was estimated from other methods, larger SEs were obtained: 3.0% for skin-folds, 3.3% for body mass index, and 2.9% for bioelectrical impedance (height2/resistance) plus weight. Individual body density values derived from UWW were corrected for bone mineral variation. DEXA predicted the corrected body density with a lower SE (0.0040 vs. 0.0053 g/ml) than the original density values. We conclude that DEXA was a precise method and correlated highly with fat-free body weight and %fat from UWW in this homogeneous female sample.
• Hewitt, M. J., Going, S. B., Williams, D. P., & Lohman, T. G. (1993). Hydration of the fat-free body mass in children and adults: Implications for body composition assessment. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism, 265(1 28-1), E88-E95.
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  PMID: 8338157;Abstract: Previous studies have shown that children have a higher aqueous fraction of the fat-free body mass (FFM) than young adults. In older adults, methodological differences among studies limit evaluation of potential age- related differences in the water content of the FFM (W/FFM). Therefore, we determined W/FFM in 28 healthy white prepubescent children (age = 5-10 yr), 31 young adults (age = 22-39 yr), and 62 older adults (age = 65-84 yr), using 2H2O dilution to estimate total body water and a multicomponent approach based on body density, total body water, and regional bone mineral density to estimate FFM. To quantify the extent to which variation in W/FFM affects percent fat estimation error, differences in percent fat between our multicomponent approach and the Siri two-component model were related to W/FFM. Prepubescent children (72.7 ± 1.6%) and older adults (72.5 ± 1.4%) were found to have significantly higher (P < 0.01) mean W/FFM than young adults (70.8 ± 1.2%). Differences in percent fat between the multicomponent and two-component models ranged from -10 to 6% fat and were significantly associated with W/FFM (r = -0.62, P < 0.0001). We conclude that prepubescent children and older adults, on average, have a higher W/FFM than young adults, and that, in adults, individual differences in W/FFM account for a substantial portion of the percent fat estimation errors associated with the use of two-component body composition models.
• Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (1993). Multicomponent models in body composition research: opportunities and pitfalls.. Basic life sciences, 60, 53-58.
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  PMID: 8110163;Abstract: This paper presents theoretical, methodological, and statistical considerations in the evaluation of multicomponent body composition models. The opportunities for multicomponent approaches to validate new body composition methods, to provide definitive references for FFB composition values of different populations, and to evaluate changes in various components of the body with age and interventions are well-recognized. The pitfalls of the multicomponent approach, however, limit the success of past research efforts. If future investigations evaluate in the same study design the theoretical, methodological and statistical approaches presented, improved multicomponent approaches will be developed, and present controversies surrounding the variability in composition of FFB as well as the validity of new methodologies such as DXA will be resolved.
• Williams, D. P., Boyden, T. W., Pamenter, R. W., Lohman, T. G., & Going, S. B. (1993). Relationship of body fat percentage and fat distribution with dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in premenopausal females. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 77(1), 80-85.
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  PMID: 8325963;Abstract: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) has an antiobesity effect in rodents, and elevated endogenous levels of its sulfate ester (DHEAS) are associated with reductions in risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in men. To examine the association of body fat and fat distribution, established correlates of CVD and CVD risk factors, with circulating DHEAS levels in women, we measured trunk and limb skinfold thicknesses and circumferences, total and regional body fat from dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and serum levels of DHEAS in 96 healthy Caucasian females aged 28-39 yr. Body mass index, percentage fat from DXA and the waist-to-hip ratio were not significantly correlated (r ≤ 0.15, P ≥ 0.156) with serum DHEAS levels, regardless of statistical control for age, smoking behavior, and fasting status. However, the ratio of trunk/total skinfold thicknesses (r = 0.23, P = 0.030) and the percentage of total fat located on the trunk from DXA (r = 0.32, P = 0.002) were positively correlated with DHEAS, whereas the ratio of leg/total skinfold thicknesses (r = -0.25, P = 0.015) and the percentage of total fat located on the legs from DXA (r = -0.25, P = 0.015) were inversely correlated with DHEAS after adjusting for age, smoking, and fasting status. With the exception of the trunk/total skinfold thickness ratio, the correlations of DXA- and skinfold-derived estimates of fat distribution remained significant (P ≤ 0.033) even after further adjust ment for percentage fat or body mass index. It is concluded that increased amounts of total fat located on the trunk and decreased amounts of total fat located on the legs are associated with increased serum DHEAS concentrations in normally menstruating females.
• Williams, D. P., Going, S. B., Massett, M. P., Lohman, T. G., Bare, L. A., & Hewitt, M. J. (1993). Aqueous and mineral fractions of the fat-free body and their relation to body fat estimates in men and women aged 49-82 years.. Basic life sciences, 60, 109-113.
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  PMID: 8110088;
• Houtkooper, L. B., Going, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Roche, A. F., & Loan, M. V. (1992). Bioelectrical impedance estimation of fat-free body mass in children and youth: A cross-validation study. Journal of Applied Physiology, 72(1), 366-373.
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  PMID: 1537738;Abstract: The purposes of this study were to develop and cross-validate the 'best' prediction equations for estimating fat-free body mass (FFB) from bioelectrical impedance in children and youth. Predictor variables included height2/resistance (RI) and RI with anthropometric data. FFB was determined from body density (underwater weighing) and body water (deuterium dilution) (FFB-DW) and from age-corrected density equations, which account for variations in FFB water and bone content. Prediction equations were developed using multiple regression analyses in the validation sample (n = 94) and cross-validated in three other samples (n = 131). R2 and standard error of the estimate (SEE) values ranged from 0.80 to 0.95 and 1.3 to 3.7 kg, respectively. The four samples were then combined to develop a recommended equation for estimating FFB from three regression models. R2 and SEE values and coefficients of variation from these regression equations ranged from 0.91 to 0.95, 2.1 to 2.9 kg, and 5.1 to 7.0%, respectively. As a result of all cross-validation analyses, we recommend the equation FFB-DW = 0.61 RI + 0.25 body weight + 1.31, with a SEE of 2.1 kg and adjusted R2 of 0.95. This study demonstrated that RI with body weight can predict FFB with good accuracy in Whites 10-19 yr old.
• Misner, J. E., Massey, B. H., Bemben, M., Going, S., & Patrick, J. (1992). Long-term effects of exercise on the range of motion of aging women. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 16(1), 37-42.
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  Abstract: Loss of mobility is important to everyone, particularly the elderly. The purpose of this retrospective, longitudinal study was to determine the long- term (5-year) effects of exercise on the shoulder and hip range of motion of a group of 12 women aged 50-71 years. Shoulder flexion, shoulder extension, shoulder transverse extension, hip flexion, and hip rotation were measured a minimum of five times throughout the 5-year period. A flexometer was used to measure range of motion. The results of the study indicated that range of motion increased significantly (p < 0.05) throughout the study in four of the five measurements. The fifth measurement (shoulder flexion) also improved but not significantly. These data indicate that aging women can improve and/or maintain shoulder and hip range of motion through participation in regular exercise done three times per week for 5 years.
• Williams, D. P., Going, S. B., & Lohman, T. G. (1992). Erratum: Body fatness and risk for elevated blood pressure, total cholesterol, and serum lipoprotein ratios in children and adolescents (Am J Public Health (1992) 82 (358-363)). American Journal of Public Health, 82(4), 527-.
• Williams, D. P., Going, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Harsha, D. W., Srinivasan, S. R., Webber, L. S., & Berenson, G. S. (1992). Body fatness and risk for elevated blood pressure, total cholesterol, and serum lipoprotein ratios in children and adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 82(3), 358-363.
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  PMID: 1536350;PMCID: PMC1694353;Abstract: Background. Recent studies have shown considerable variation in body fatness among children and adolescents defined as obese by a percentile rank for skinfold thickness. Methods. We examined the relationship between percent body fat and risk for elevated blood pressure, serum total cholesterol, and serum lipoprotein ratios in a biracial sample of 3320 children and adolescents aged 5 to 18 years. Equations developed specifically for children using the sum of subscapular (S) and triceps (T) skin-folds were used to estimate percent fat. The S/T ratio provided an index of trunkal fat patterning. Results. Significant overrepresentation (>20%) of the uppermost quintile (UQ) for cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors was evident at or above 25% fat in males (32.2% to 37.3% in UQ) and at or above 30% fat in females (26.6% to 45.4% in UQ), even after adjusting for age, race, fasting status, and trunkal fat patterning. Conclusions. These data support the concept of body fatness standards in White and Black children and adolescents as significant predictors of CVD risk factors. Potential applications of these obesity standards include epidemiologic surveys, pediatric health screenings, and youth fitness tests.
• Tsuji, S., Akama, H., Going, S., & Lohman, T. (1991). Letter to the editor [1]. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23(7), 882-883.
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  PMID: 1921683;
• Bunt, J. C., Going, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Heinrich, C. H., Perry, C. D., & Pamenter, R. W. (1990). Variation in bone mineral content and estimated body fat in young adult females. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22(5), 564-569.
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  PMID: 2233192;Abstract: This study was designed to determine whether variability in bone mineral content (BMC) at the lumbar vertebrae (L2-4), radius shaft (RS), femoral neck, and distal radius can significantly contribute to the variability observed in body density (Db) among 89 females (age = 25.1 ± 5.3 yr) of varying activity levels and menstrual status. Theoretical differences in Db were calculated at ±1 and ±2 standard deviations of BMC (SD(BMC)) for the population as well as for the subgroups: eumenorrheic inactive controls (C), recreational runners (RR), collegiate runners (CR), body builders (BB), swimmers (S), and amenorrheic runners (AR). Multiple regression to predict Db yielded significant coefficients (b) for BMC at L2-4 (b = 0.0190, P < 0.001) and RS (b = 0.0425, P < 0.01) when added separately to the sum of four skinfolds (subscapula, abdomen, thigh, calf). The differences in % BF(HW) at ±1 and ±2 SD(BMC) for the sample mean for RS(BMC) were ±1.0% and ±2.0%, respectively. Variability in L2-4 contributed differences of ±1.3% and ±2.6% at ±1 and ±2 SD(BMC). The subgroup % BF(HW) differences (due to L2-4 and RS combined) ranged from an average overestimation of 1.3% for the AR to an average underestimation of 1.4% for the BB. Estimated mean errors for remaining groups were ≤ 0.5%. Individual differences ranged from a 3.3% underestimation (BB) to a 3.0% overestimation (AR). It is concluded that variability in BMC among young adult females may significantly contribute to variability in Db, independent of fatness. While the impact of high or low bone mineral content on %BF(HW) is modest for most individuals, those athletes with extremely high or low BMC values may require adjustments in the equations used to convert Db to %BF. It is suggested that correlations between Db and total BMC (or BM density) be evaluated in a similar manner as presented here before stronger conclusions can be made concerning the impact of bone on estimations of %BF.
• Heinrich, C. H., Going, S. B., Pamenter, R. W., Perry, C. D., Boyden, T. W., & Lohman, T. G. (1990). Bone mineral content of cyclically menstruating female resistance and endurance trained athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22(5), 558-563.
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  PMID: 2233191;Abstract: The bone mineral content (BMC) at four sites on the axial and appendicular skeleton was compared among four groups of young adult (age = 17-38 yr) cyclically menstruating athletes (N = 40) who regularly performed either weightlifting resistance exercise (body builders) or nonresistance endurance exercise (runners, swimmers) and an inactive group of females (N = 18) of about equal age. Forearm BMC was measured using single photon absorptiometry at proximal (shaft) and distal sites on the radius. Dual photon absorptiometry was used to measure BMC at the lumbar vertebrae (L2-4) and femur at the femoral neck, Ward's triangle, and greater trochanter. Fat-free body mass (FFBM) was estimated from densitometry. Body builders had greater BMC than swimmers, collegiate runners, recreational swimmers, and controls were not significant (P ≤ 0.05). FFBM was correlated significantly with BMC (r = 0.35-0.56) at each site in the combined group of athletes (N = 39), whereas total body weight and BMC were correlated significantly at the distal radius site (r = 0.38) only. The results suggest that weight training may provide a better stimulus for increasing BMC than run and swim training.
• Misner, J. E., Going, S. B., Massey, B. H., Ball, T. E., Bemben, M. G., & Essandoh, L. K. (1990). Cardiovascular response to sustained maximal voluntary static muscle contraction. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22(2), 194-199.
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  PMID: 2355816;Abstract: The cardiovascular response to maximal, voluntary, sustained 2-min static contraction by three different muscle groups (right hand finger flexors [RHF], right leg extensors [RLE], and both leg extensors [BLE]) was studied in young adult males (N = 13) and females (n = 14). Systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and heart rate (HR) were recorded at 30 s intervals prior to, during, and after exercise. Mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) and pulse pressure (PP) were computed from SBP and DBP. The force of muscle contraction was monitored continuously throughout the 2-min task. Data were analyzed by MANOVA. The results showed that impulse (force x time) declined significantly throughout exercise, and there were significant differences in impulse among muscle groups. SBP, DBP, PP, and MABP increased significantly throughout the 2-min contraction period, while heart rate increased initially and then leveled off. The magnitudes of the blood pressure and HR responses were related to the muscles involved: BLE > RLE > RHF. Blood pressures during rest and exercise were significantly lower for females than for males, but there was no sex effect for heart rate. These findings suggest that blood pressure increases throughout sustained static muscular contractions despite significant reductions in force production. Heart rate, on the other hand, does not increase throughout exercise under these conditions. It appears that heart rate and blood pressure responses to sustained static contraction are mediated by different mechanisms, but these mechanisms are similar for males and females.
• Misner, J. E., Massey, B. H., Going, S. B., Bemben, M. G., & Ball, T. E. (1990). Sex differences in static strength and fatigability in three different muscle groups.. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61(3), 238-242.
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  PMID: 2097679;Abstract: Maximal voluntary static muscle force production was assessed both in strength trials and during 2-min contractions by three muscle groups (right-hand finger flexors [RHF], right-leg extensors [RLE], and both leg extensors [BLE]) in young males (n = 13) and females (n = 14). There was a significant difference (p less than .01) between males and females for RHF strength and BLE strength but no significant difference between sexes for RLE strength. During the 2-min task, impulse (force x time) declined significantly (p less than .001) and there was a significant difference (p less than .001) between muscle groups, but there was no difference between sexes. There was a significant (p less than .05) sex x time interaction for the impulse values indicating that the fatigability was greater in males than females.
• Houtkooper, L. B., Lohman, T. G., Going, S. B., & Hall, M. C. (1989). Validity of bioelectric impedance for body composition assessment in children. Journal of Applied Physiology, 66(2), 814-821.
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  PMID: 2708210;Abstract: Whole-body bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) was evaluated for its reliability and accuracy in estimating body composition in children. The hypothesis that the index, body height2 divided by resistance (RI), can accurately predict fat-free body mass (FFB) and percent fat (%FAT) in children was tested on 94 caucasian children 10-14 yr old. Criterion variables were FFB and %FAT estimated using multicomponent equations developed for children. BIA measurements (resistance and reactance) were found to be reliable. Prediction accuracy (standard error of the estimate, SEE) for FFB from RI alone was 2.6 kg and for %FAT from RI and body weight was 4.2%. For RI, anthropometric variables and reactance, the SEE improved to 1.9 kg FFB. For RI and anthropometric variables, the SEE was 3.3% FAT. For anthropometric variables alone, the SEE's were 2.1 kg FFB and 3.2% FAT. Adult FFB and %FAT prediction equations cross-validated with this sample resulted in SEE's similar to those for adult samples. We conclude that RI together with anthropometry is a reliable and an acceptably accurate method of estimating FFB mass and %FAT in children.
• Going, S. B., Massey, B. H., Hoshizaki, T. B., & Lohman, T. G. (1987). Maximal voluntary static force production characteristics of skeletal muscle in children 8-11 years of age. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 58(2), 115-123.
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  Abstract: Maximal voluntary isometric muscle contraction force-time curves for 32 normal, healthy children, age 8-11 years, 15 girls and 17 boys, performing three tasks representing separate muscle groups - finger flexors, forearm flexors, and forearm extensors - were recorded over trials and over days. Children's pattern of force production and degree of consistency over trials and days has not been reported in the literature. The primary objective was to identify curve components reproduced with sufficient consistency over trials and days to suggest possible value for providing new and unique information regarding muscle function. Each task was recorded three consecutive trials per day over two days separated by one week. Analog tracings of instantaneous and integrated force were obtained using a Daytronic Linear Voltage Transformer in series with a Brush Mark 280 recorder. Trial to trial and day to day consistency in force production by each muscle group represented by 14 curve variables was assessed using intraclass correlation based on a days x trials x subjects ANOVA for each variable. Force and maximal rate of force increase were quite reproducible; but time to selected force levels reflected considerable variation. The force variables - maximal force, force at which the curve plateaued, and force at the point of curve inflection - intercorrelated well, but correlated only moderately with maximum rate of force increase, and poorly with the time variables. Maximal rate of force increase gave the most promise of providing new information regarding muscle function in children.
• Boileau, R. A., Lohman, T. G., Slaughter, M. H., Ball, T. E., Going, S. B., & Hendrix, M. K. (1984). Hydration of the fat-free body in children during maturation. Human Biology, 56(4), 651-666.
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  PMID: 6530218;Abstract: The estimation of body fatness by the densitometric method assumes a constant density of the fat-free body. Water constitutes the largest single component of the fat-free body and because of its relatively low density (.9934 gm/cc at 37°C) exerts the greatest influence on the density of the fat-free body. The purpose of this study was to test the assumption that the water content of the fat-free body (% water-FFB) is constant during growth and development. The sample consisted of 292 Black and White males and females (ages 8-30 years) and was classified via maturational assessment as prepubertal, (N = 54), pubertal (N = 50), postpubertal (N = 107) and adult (N = 81). Body water was measured by deuterium oxide dilution and body density was measured by the underwater weighing method. Body water as a percentage of body weight (% water-BW) was higher (p < .01) for males (X̄ = 61.6%) than females (X̄ = 55.8%) with the greatest difference observed in the pubertal, postpubertal and adult levels. This finding likely reflected the increased relative fatness of females at puberty and is in agreement with skinfold thickness measurements. The % water-FFB progressively decreased from prepubescence to adulthood by 2.8% overall at a rate of 0.38% per year for both sexes with the lowest values found in the adult samples. Although the % water-FFB of the prepubertal and pubertal groups was similar (p > .05), both groups were significantly (p < .01) higher than the postpubertal and adult groups, and the postpubertal groups was higher (p < .05) than the adult group. Moreover, the % water-FFB was lower (p < .05) for males (X̄ = 73.5%) than females (X̄ = 74.2%). No difference in % water-FFB was found between the Black and White samples. These findings suggest that the water content of the FFB is not constant during growth and development and that adult equations for estimating fat from density and other indirect methods may not be appropriate for children, overestimating fatness by at least 4%.

Proceedings Publications

• Sriram, U., LaCroix, A., Barrington, W., Corbie-Smith, G., Garcia, L., Going, S. B., LaMonte, M. L., Manson, J., Sealy-Jefferson, S., Stefanick, M., Waring, M., & Seguin, R. A. (2016, April 6). The Relationship between Neighborhood Walkability and Adiposity in the WHI Cohort. In Experimental Biology Conference.
• Ussery, C., Ussery, C., Going, S. B., Going, S. B., Roe, D., Roe, D., Kutob, R. M., Kutob, R. M., Stump, C. S., Stump, C. S., Merchant, N. C., Merchant, N. C., Hingle, M. D., & Hingle, M. D. (2016, April 6). Metabolic Risk Factor Prevalence in Children Participating in a Family-Based Community Diabetes Prevention Program. In Experimental Biology Conference.
• Going, S. B. (2015, Jan/spring). Cardiovascular Risk Related to Body Fat and Physical Activity in Young Girls. In FASEB, 29.
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  Jennifer BeaRobert BlewJanet FunkScott GoingVinson Lee
• Laddu, D., & Going, S. B. (2013, April). Association of fat distribution with changes in bone outcomes in young girls.. In Experimental Biology.
• Vassallo, D., Laddu, D., Lee, V., Blew, R., & Going, S. B. (2013, April). Higher dairy calcium intake compared to other dietary sources of calcium is associated with decreased whole body and regional adiposity in adolescent girls.. In Experimental Biology.
• , R., Lee, V., Burns, M., Holt, B., & Going, S. (2012, Fall). 12-week Program of Whole Body Vibration Exercise Did Not Improve Body Composition in Young Adults. In American College of Sports Medicine.
• Asuka, S. A., Pope, B., Roe, D., Orr, B., Merchant, N., Going, S., & Hongu, N. (2012, April). Food photo records for assessing daily food intake using a smart phone application in college students. In Experimental Biology (EB).
• Chomistek, A., Lu, B., Sands, M., Going, S., Garcia, L., Allison, M., Stefanick, M., Sims, S., Lamonte, M., Johnson, K., Manson, J., & Eaton, C. (2012, March). Relationship of sedentary behavior and physical activity to incident coronary heart disease: Results from the Women s Health Initiative. In American Heart Association, Epidemiology and Prevention/Nutrition, Physical Activity and Metabolism 2012 Scientific Sessions.
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  March 13-16, 2012
• Hingle, M., Hingle, M., Nichter, M., Nichter, M., Merchant, N., Merchant, N., Hongu, N., Hongu, N., Roe, D., Roe, D., Orr, B., Orr, B., Going, S., & Going, S. (2012, July). Development and Evaluation of an Informal SMS-Based Intervention to Promote Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors in Adolescents. In Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior.
• Laddu, D., Lee, V., Blew, R., & Going, S. (2012, June). Effects of Whole body and Regional Fat Distribution on weight bearing bone geometry, structure and bone strength: a pQCT study in Young Girls. In ASN Controversies in Clinical Nutrition.
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  June 22-24, 2012
• Laddu, D., Lee, V., Blew, R., & Going, S. (2012, September). Association of Fat Pattern with Bone Strength in Young Girls. In Obesity Society Annual Meeting.
• Mosqueda, M., Martinez, C., Orre, B., Merchant, N., Going, S., & Hongu, N. (2012, Fall). A nutrition and physical activity intervention using smart phones in physical education classes at a junior high school. In Experimental Biology 2012.
• Suzuki, A., Pope, B., Roe, D., Orr, B., Merchant, N., Going, S., & Hongu, N. (2012, April). Food photo records for assessing daily food intake using a smart phone application in college students. In Not provided in APROL.
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  04/21-04/25/2012
• Vassallo, D., Laudermilk, M., Farr, J., Manore, M., & Going, S. (2011, Fall). A higher glycemic index diet is associated with fat infiltration within skeletal muscle in young girls. In FASEB.
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  FASEB
• Vassallo, D., Lee, V., Laudermilk, M., Blew, R., & Going, S. (2012, Fall). Lower dairy calcium and dairy vitamin D intakes are associated with increased skeletal muscle fatty infiltration in adolescent. In Experimental Biology Annual Meeting.
• , A., Silva, H., Lee, V., & Going, S. (2011, July). Effects of Whole-Body Vibration on Vastus Lateralis Activation During Isometric and Dynamic Squatting. In Not provided in APROL, 49.
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  J Rehabil Med.
• Farr, J., Van, L. M., Lohman, T., & Going, S. (2011, Fall). Lower physical activity is associated with fat infiltration within skeletal muscle in young girls. In American College of Sports Medicine.
• Hingle, M., & Going, S. (2011, June). Stealth Health: Youth Innovation, Mobile Technology, Online Social Networking, and Information Learning to Promote Physical Activity. In New Paradigms to Improve Physical Activity and Nutrition, International Society for Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity.
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  June 21-23, 2011
• Laudermilk, M., Vassallo, D., Manore, M., & Going, S. (2011, Fall). Usual dietary protein intake is related to trabecular but not cortical bone mineral content, density and strength measured by pQCT in young girls. In Experimental Biology Annual Meeting.
• Nurss, E., Jacobs, L., Bea, J., Going, S., & Farrell, V. (2011, June). Strategies from Teachers to Increase Participation in School-based Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Nutrition Education (SNAP-Ed): Excerpts from a Pilot Study. In Childhood Obesity Conference.
• Reed, R., Mosqueda, M., Going, S., Orr, B., & Hongu, N. (2011, Fall). Using fitness devices and GPS (global positioning systems) technology in measuring energy expenditure and distance walked over flat and incline surfaces. In Experimental Biology 2011.

Presentations

• Going, S. B. (2016, March 1). Distinguished Speakers Series. Georgia State University, College of Education & Human Development. Atlanta, GA: Georgia State University.
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  Keynote speaker
• Going, S. B. (2016, October 31). Resistance Exercise In Adolescents For Increasing Muscle Mass And Improving Metabolic Health. World Conference in Kinanthropometry and Body Composition ISAK-UADY. Merida, Mexico: The International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK).
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  Keynote Speaker
• Hetherington-Rauth, M. C., Bea, J. W., Blew, R., Lee, V., Funk, J. L., & Going, S. B. (2016, October 31). Comparison of direct measures of adiposity with indirect measures for predicting cardiometabolic risk factors in preadolescent girls. The Obesity Society, Obesity Week.
• Going, S. B. (2015, October 17). Questões Criticas em Pesquisa em Composição Corporal. Universidade Federal Fluminese, Água, Alimentos E Vida: Desafios Para O Milênio. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Universidade Federal Fluminese.
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  Keynote speaker
• Going, S. B. (2012, August). Back in the Saddle Again: Celebrating 150 Years of the Morrill Land-Grant College Act Initiatives in Nutritional Sciences. CALS Extension.
• Going, S. B. (2012, February). Celebrating Healthier Communities and Building on Our Success. CDC, Communities Putting Prevention to Work (CPPW 2012 Meeting).. Atlanta, GA.
• Going, S. B. (2012, January). The Obesegenic Environment: Behavior, Biology and Policy. Research Frontiers in Nutritional Sciences.. Tucson, AZ.
• Going, S., Hingle, M., Hongu, N., Orr, B., Merchant, N., Nichter, M., Roe, D., Astroth, K., Borden, L., & Marsh, S. (2012). Stealth Health: Youth Innovation, Mobile Technology, Online Social Networking and Informal Learning to Promote Physical Activity. Society for Nutrition and Behavior Education (SNEB) conference. Washington, DC: Society for Nutrition and Behavior Education.
• Hingle, M., Roe, D., Saboda, K., & Going, S. (2012, May). Motivations for healthy eating and dietary behavior in a diverse group of adolescents. Austin, TX.
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  ISBNPA
• Going, S. B. (2011). Development and Validation of Body Fat and Body Mass Index Standards in FITNESSGRAM. AAHPERD 126th National Convention and Expo. San Diego, CA.
• Going, S. B. (2011). New Approaches to Increasing Physical Activity in Youth. Hong Kong.
• Going, S. B. (2011). School-Based Obesity Prevention: Opportunities and Challenges. New York, NY.
• Going, S. B. (2011, June). Criterion-referenced body composition standards. Cooper Institute Fitnessgram Annual meeting. Sedona, AZ.

Poster Presentations

• Going, S. B., Blew, R., Lee, V., Carranza, N., Funk, J. L., Hetherington-Rauth, M., Kohler, L. N., & Bea, J. W. (2019, May). Cruciferous vegetable intake association with inflammation in preadolescent girls. American College of Sports Medicine Annual Meeting. Orlando, FL: ACSM.
• Going, S. B., Bland, V., Bea, J. W., Blew, R., Lee, V., & Blew, D. (2019, May). Relationship of physical activity with bone parameters in young Hispanic girls. American College of Sports Medicine Annual Meeting. Orlando, FL: ACSM.
• Going, S. B., Blew, R., Bea, J. W., Lee, V., & Bland, V. (2019, May). Sedentary time predicts 2-year longitudinal bone strength in Hispanic girls. American College of Sports Medicine Annual Meeting. Orlando, FL: ACSM.
• Going, S. B., Lee, V., Blew, R., Bea, J. W., & Bland, V. (2019, November). Changes in Soft Tissue Mass Predict 2-Year Bone Strength Change in Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Girls. The Obesity Society ObesityWeek. Las Vegas, NV: The Obesity Society.
• Yoshitake, Y., Kimura, Y., Yamamoto, N., Hongu, N., Going, S. B., & Shimada, M. (2018, May). Leg extensor power and healthy aging are associated in older adults: 10-year Follow-up study.. American College of Sports Medicine, Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, MN.. Minneapolis, MN, USA: American College of Sports Medicine.
• Going, S. B., Blew, R., Funk, J. L., Lee, V., Bea, J. W., & Hetherington-Rauth, M. (2017, October). Effect of cardiometabolic risk factors on relationship between adiposity and bone measures in girls. Obesity Week. Washington, DC: The Obesity Society.
• Irving, A., Bea, J. W., Blew, R., Going, S. B., Lee, V., Lee, V., Blew, R., Going, S. B., Irving, A., & Bea, J. W. (2017, January). Using dual x-ray absorptiometry spine scans to determine total abdominal fat. Annual Undergraduate Biology Research Program (UBRP) Conference, University of Arizona. Tucson Arizona.
• Hetherington-Rauth, M. C., Bea, J. W., Blew, R., Lee, V., Funk, J. L., & Going, S. B. (2016, October 31). Comparison of direct measures of adiposity with indirect measures for predicting cardiometabolic risk factors in preadolescent girls. The Obesity Society, Obesity Week. New Orleans, LA.
• Irving, A., Blew, R., Lee, V., Going, S. B., & Bea, J. W. (2016, August). Using dual x-ray absorptiometry spine scans to determine total abdominal fat. Native American Cancer Prevention Program (NACP) BRIDGES Summer Conference. Flagstaff, AZ.
• Bea, J., Funk, J., Blew, R., & Going, S. B. (2015, Spring). Evaluation of cardiovascular risk in prepubertal girls in relation to lean body mass. Experimental Biology. Boston, MA.
• Vassallo, D., Thomson, C., Funk, J., Blew, R., Lee, V., & Going, S. B. (2015, Spring). Physical activity is associated with lower adiposity independent of diet quality in adolescent girls. Experimental Biology. Boston, MA.
• Hongu, N., Gunter, K., Going, S. B., Williams, J. E., Lindsay, A. R., Manore, M. M., & Houtkooper, L. K. (2014, May). Exercise is Medicine (EIM) for Community Health Programs: Expanding to the National Cooperative Extension System. American College of Sports Medicine, Annual Meeting. Orlando, Florida.
• Turner, T., Kutob, R. M., Going, S. B., Merchant, N. C., Roe, D., Stump, C., & Hingle, M. D. (2014, November). E.P.I.C. Kids study: a family-focused community program to prevent type 2 diabetes in youth. The University of Arizona CALS 2014 Research Forum. University of Arizona: College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.
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  The University of Arizona CALS 2014 Research Forum. E.P.I.C. Kids study: a family-focused community program to prevent type 2 diabetes in youth. T Turner* (presenting author), R Kutob, S Going, N Merchant, D Roe, C Stump, M Hingle
• Turner, T., Kutob, R., Going, S. B., Merchant, N., Roe, D., Stump, C., & Hingle, M. (2014, Nov). Kids study: a family-focused community program to prevent type 2 diabetes in youth. CALS Research Forum.
• Chen, Z. -., Chen, Z. -., Grant, A., Grant, A., Klimecki, W. -., Klimecki, W. -., Wright, N., Wright, N., Hu, C. -., Hu, C. -., Wright, J., Wright, J., Going, S. B., Going, S. B., Nicholas, J. S., Nicholas, J. S., Thompson, P., & Thompson, P. (2013, Fall). Possible pathways for the association of appendicular skeletal muscle mass with leptin, insulin, myoglobin and inflammatory Markers. The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) 2013 Annual Meeting. Baltimore, MD.
• Hingle, M., Going, S. B., Orr, B. J., Hongu, N. -., Merchant, N., Nichter, M. -., Roe, D. -., Borden, L., Astroth, K. A., & Marsh, S. E. (2013, August). Stealth health: Youth innovation, mobile technology, online social networking, and informal learning to promote physical activity. Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior, Annual Conference. Portland, OR.: Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior.
• Stern, J., Grant, A. S., Thomson, C. A., Kaplan, R., Manini, T. M., Eaton, C., Tinker, L., LeBlanc, E. S., Going, S. B., Zaslavsky, O., & Chen, Z. -. (2013, Sept). Baseline serum markers of adiposity driven immune/endocrine perturbations are not significantly correlated with longitudinal changes in lean mass in postmenopausal women. The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research Annual Meeting. Baltimore, Maryland USA: The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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  Jennifer H. Stern, Andriene S. Grant, Cynthia A. Thomson, Robert Kaplan, Todd M. Manini, Charles Eaton, Lesley Tinker, Erin S. LeBlanc, Scott B. Going, Oleg Zaslavsky, Zhao Chen. Baseline serum markers of adiposity driven immune/endocrine perturbations are not significantly correlated with longitudinal changes in lean mass in postmenopausal women (poster presentation). The American Society for Bone and Mineral Research Annual Meeting, Oct 2-7, 2013. Baltimore, Maryland USA
• Nurss, E., Farrell, V., Bea, J. W., Going, S. B., & Jacobs, L. E. (2011, June). Strategies from Teachers to Increase Partici pation in School - based Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Nutrition Education (SNAP - Ed): Excerpts from a Pilot Study. Childhood Obesity Conference. San Diego: California Department of Public Health, California Department of Education, Nutrition Policy Institute UC Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, The California Endowment, and Kaiser Permanente.
• Reeves, J., Farrell, V., Ottenbacher, H., Misner, S. L., Going, S. B., Houtkooper, L. K., & Jacobs, L. E. (2009, October). Education for SNAP Eligible Children: A Model for Sustainable Partnerships to Reduce Childhood Obesity. Frontiers in Nutrition Sciences Conference. Tucson: UA Department of Nutritional Sciences.

Others

• Going, S. B., Bawden, K., Whitlock, L. T., Wyatt, M. A., Sato, T., & Hongu, N. (2018, February). Road to change: Overcoming barriers to regular physical activity. https://extension.arizona.edu/sites/extension.arizona.edu/files/pubs/az1757-2018.pdf
• , R., Lee, V., Burns, M., Holt, B., & Going, S. (2011, Fall). 12-week Program of Whole Body Vibration Exercise Did Not Improve Body Composition in Young Adults. American College of Sports Medicine.